“Programmable” antibiotic uses enzyme to attack drug-resistant microbes

Karthik Kuchimanchi
Source: The Rockefeller University
Published: Oct. 5 2014
Link: http://newswire.rockefeller.edu/2014/10/05/programmable-antibiotic-harnesses-an-enzyme-to-attack-drug-resistant-microbes/



Summary: Researchers in Rockefeller University have recently found a  new way to eradicate microbes that cause viruses, especially ones found in the liver. The bacterial enzyme Cas9 is the key here. This enzyme can reduce the risk of C. diff, a severe infection of the colon, caused by the Clostridium difficile bacterium. This is a severe infection that usually sends people to the hospital and puts them on harsh antibiotic treatments. The microbe is well-known for its immunity to most standard type of antibiotics, so this new alternative treatment is revolutionary. This technique of using Cas9 is also beneficial because this way is known for not damaging other innocent microbes that coexist with C. diff. The Cas9 is programmable, meaning that the scientists have a way of controlling what Cas9 does to some degree. The results are astounding,  though this way of treating the microbe still needs development and the scientists will continue to improve their program and treatment


Connection: This article relates to our study of macro molecules, but in particular proteins. More specially, this connects to our topic of enzymes. In class we know that enzymes are proteins that break down certain molecules and are characterized as catalysts. Catalysts speed up a reaction with less activation energy. When we think of enzymes We usually think of saliva, which has the enzyme amylase or  stomach acid, which breaks down food, like pepsin. This article shows that different enzymes can make a bigger impact and even can kill certain microbes that contain harmful bacteria. Furthermore this article teaches us that enzymes serve many purposes then ones we learned in class, which were only some of the examples. Also, this article briefly references the scientific method, which was something we went over in class as well. In this experiment, there were many recorded observations and then a conclusion was made after them. This is key in a successful experiment.  

Plastisphere -The world of plastics and how microbial organisms thrive in the plastisphere.

Sachit Murali
Published: October 22nd, 2014
Source: American Geophysical Union
Links: http://news.agu.org/press-release/uncovering-the-secret-world-of-the-plastisphere/

Summary:
Plastics are useful in many aspects because its durable, cheap and flexible. Plastics have now turned into a plastic communities because of all the plastic polluted the ocean gets filled with plastic every year. Its ability to last long allows it to end up in places it should not be in. Ocean being a good example of where plastic usually ends up. It is known that most organisms are severely affected by plastics but some organisms thrive in plastic debris in the ocean. Algae are a great example of an organism thriving in plastic debris because of their ability to transform plastic into "rich microbial reefs".  An experiment was conducted by marine biologist testing to see how the algae how had the algae transformed the plastic into food and shelter. To see this he went deep into the ocean and found floating invertebrate some microbial biofilm.  Later was found to be made from plastic and see that these microbes thrived from the plastic.


Connection:
This is related to what we talked in class because this shows how plastics can negatively and positively effect our ecosystem. The plastic as we all know can kill off major consumers in our ecosystem. Luckily though our producers are not affected by these plastics and this can really boost many ecosystems. Because the producers can really help many of the consumers. Also since the chain is messed up by the consumers being affected, the producers being well off can help the primary consumers in the food chain. Also many symbiotic relationships occur because of the plastic. The most direct symbiotic relationship is the microbes affecting animals. For example a species called vibrio gives out chorea to the disease to many animals. This is definitely an example of parasitism because the bacteria get a place stay while hurting the bodies of the animals.

Predicting the predator threatening a squirrel by analyzing its sounds and tail movements

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/10/141021125943.htm
Oct. 21, 2014
Author: University of Miami

Biologists discovered that by observing the motion of a squirrel’s tail, it could be concluded what predator it was being threatened by. Thaddeus McRae, Ph.D. '12, assistant research professor of University of Miami College of Arts Sciences, takes a closer look at the certain vocalizations and gestures of the squirrels. McRae conducted his research by designing a remote-controlled cat and hawk which threatened and recorded the responses of the squirrels. Professor Steven Green, a coworker of McRae, found that he could quite accurately predict what type of predator was threatening a squirrel by analyzing its sounds and tail movements. McRae theorizes that the squirrels use the vocal and tail alarm either as a signal to predators in letting them know that they have been spotted, or to warn other squirrels of danger. Currently, he is trying to determine how squirrels react to these warning signals from their peers.

 This article links back to Unit 1 on community ecology. We learned about how species interact in biological communities, with one interaction being predation. Predation is an interaction in which one organism eats another. Many adaptions have evolved in both predator and prey as eating or preventing to becoming eaten was necessary for survival. The prey may have adapted camouflage or mimicry, while predators may have adapted claws or fangs to catch the prey. An example of adaption is shown in McRae and Green’s experiment as they test to see if squirrels create certain movements or sounds to differentiate the predator that is attacking. This is an example of a predator-prey relationship because animals including cats and hawks play the role as predators, while the squirrels are the prey. This article also exemplifies adaption. Due to experience with certain predators, the squirrels are able to send out different messages that will identify the animal.

Designer 'barrel' proteins created

Leah Brandstein

Published: October 23rd, 2014

Source: Science Daily

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/10/141023142310.htm

Summary: This article talks about proteins. Specifically, it discusses the possibility that more protein structures are possible than the ones humans know currently exist in nature. This idea was formulated due to the rather low number of structural types of proteins used by cells, only about a few thousand. A team of scientists from the University of Bristol’s School of Chemistry and School of Biochemistry, led by Professor Dek Woolfson, tested the possibility of there being more protein structures then those found in nature by making their own protein molecules. These scientists made their proteins from scratch, but followed the designing concepts which were obtained from natural proteins. However, the scientists created their proteins with new shapes never seen in the natural world. These man-made proteins contained channels running through them and could be useful in making new functions for proteins. For example, these new proteins could help create protein catalysts which break down fats, or they could help permit new communications between cells.

Connections: This article relates to what we have learned this year in biology class in many ways. In chapter five we learned about proteins which are the focus of this article. We also learned about catalysts which are mentioned briefly when talking about how the new proteins can help to design new protein functions like catalysts that help break down fats. Furthermore, this article strongly relates to the hypothesis-based science we learned about in chapter two. In the article, the scientists observed that there are very few protein structures in nature; they then questioned if it were possible that there are more protein structures then those found in nature; they predicted that they would be able to make protein structures that do not exist in nature, and they tested this by creating said structures. This included nearly all the steps of the idealized scientific method discussed in chapter two, including observations, a question, a prediction, and a test, while lacking a clear hypothesis. However, we also learned that this is just a basic guide for scientific procedure and that this procedure is subject to variation in structure which may account for the lack of an explicit hypothesis in the article. 

Invasive Seaweed is Sheltering Local Crustaceans

Jeffrey Huang
Date Accessed: 10/23/14

By Brian Stallard
Date Published: Oct 22, 2014 06:10 PM
URL: http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/9794/20141022/invasive-seaweed-sheltering-local-crustaceans.htm

Summary- The article by Brian Stallard is about a newly invaded species of seaweed that has become a shelter for crustaceans on the salty mudflats of Georgia and South Carolina and it's impact on the food web and the environment itself. The scientific name of this seaweed is Gracilaria vermiculophylla, also called red Japanese Seaweed. Previously, before the invasion, crustaceans had been exposed, thus making themselves to be preyed upon. The seaweed provided the crustaceans, mainly the native Gammarus mucronatu, shelter/habitat from the predators. During low tide, it protected it from predators, and during high tide, it shielded it from the harsh rays of the sun. The article goes on to talk about how although the relationship between the seaweed and the crustaceans might seem beneficial, it still has severe impacts on the food chain and massively disrupting the surrounding ecosystem. 

Connection- This article is related to our class because it talks about the symbiotic relationship between the crustaceans and the red Japanese Seaweed. Since the crustaceans are receiving shelter and protection, but don't affect the seaweed in any sort of way, the relationship can be classified as commensalism. The article also elaborates on how invasive species in general and how they might negatively impact the environment. Even though the red Japanese Seaweed may benefit the crustaceans, it still harms predators by limiting their food supply. Because the seaweed protects the crustaceans, they become harder to find, and thus predators lose a main source of food. This is an example of how invasive species can indirectly impact the environment. By eliminating/limiting the availability of crustaceans as a food source, other organisms that depend on the crustaceans as their main food source will decrease in population. 

Predicting the predator threatening a squirrel by analyzing its sounds and tail movements

Ricky Wang
Published: October 21st, 2014
Source: University of Miami College of Arts and Sciences
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/10/141021125943.htm

Summary: Thaddeus McRae, an assistant biology research professor and the University of Miami, conducted an experiment to see if a squirrel's tail movement and the noises it makes will vary based on the kind of nearby predator. He used a remote-controlled cat to represent a ground predator and a painted glider for an aerial predator. He tested this in a public park and recorded his data. Over two years of observing, Thaddeus was able to determine what type of predator there was based on the squirrel's sound and tail motion. He noticed that a squirrel primarily made three types of noises: a short bark, a longer squeal, and a whistling sound. Its tail movements included the "twitch" and "flag". The "twitch" was in an arc shape, while the "flag" could be in other shapes, such as a circle or figure eight. Besides able to tell which kind of predator, Thaddeus also theorizes that these sounds and movements were to let predators know they have been spotted and to act as a warning to nearby squirrels.

Connection: This article connects to what we learned in class because its related to the relationships between organisms and an organisms' niche. We learned about how species interact in communities, and one example of this is predation. A squirrel and its predator is an example of predation, when one organism eats another. The predator would get its energy from consuming other organisms, such as the squirrel, but it will only receive around ten percent, because of energy lost mainly as heat when it is transferred to a higher trophic level. Squirrels would be considered as primary consumers because it consumes producers, and its predators would be secondary consumers. Squirrels' tail movements and sounds when reacting to its predators is part of its niche because it is unique and a specific factor in how a squirrel lives. Lastly, there were independent and dependent variables in this experiment and we studied this in class. In this case, the independent variable was the type of predator and the dependent was the squirrel's reaction (noises and tail movements).

Inhibition of Key Enzymes in the Animal Brain Reduces Drug Relapse Behaviour

Neha Kamireddi
http://www.2minutemedicine.com/inhibition-of-enzymes-in-the-animal-brain-reduces-drug-relapse-behavior/
Author: Judith Kandel and Sarah Stapleton
Published October 23, 2014

This article was written about a study done that was used to identify specific enzymes involved in drug addiction, and the addicts susceptibility to relapse. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are enzymes that have been found to be involved in drug addiction. MMPs help to alter neurons by breaking down the matrix that surrounds the cells. The neuronal alterations done by these enzymes are distinctive of drug addicts. Rats were allowed to self-administer a drug, before being withdrawn from it. They are then exposed to the drug once again. The study showed that by injecting inhibitors of MMPs into the rats before giving the drug, decreased the self-administration of the drugs.The inhibitors also helped to suppress relapse in the rats when they were re-exposed to the drug. The findings in this study and possible future studies similar to this could contribute much more information as to how to treat drug addiction.

This study connects to the enzyme section in the matter and energy unit. The enzymes involved in this study catalyze a decomposition reaction that alters neurons. The article also mentions the use of inhibitors to make the enzyme inactive. This is similar to how we tested the reactions of enzymes under certain conditions during the enzyme lab. They probably used data similar to this in order to create an injection that would denature the enzyme, stopping it from catalyzing the reaction. Just as we studied the reaction of catalase and hydrogen peroxide, this study watched how MMPs, when inhibited, affected drug addicted rats. In class we discussed the different reactions that enzymes can catlayze, synthesis reactions and decomposition reactions. The alteration of neurons by MMPs is an example of the decomposition reaction. Because of these alterations, the study was able to link these MMPs to drug addiction.

Cells' powerhouses were once energy parasites

Amanda Carotenuto

Cells' powerhouses were once energy parasites: Study upends current theories of how mitochondria began

Source: University of Virginia
Date of Publication: October 16, 2014
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/10/141016165955.htm

Summary
This article describes mitochondria's origin in cells. Mitochondria is an organelle in eukaryotic cells that provides it with energy. Originally mitochondria is thought to have been separate from eukaryotic cells, as it has its own DNA, and eventually became a part of the cell. It is unknown, however, how this exactly happened.. This article talks about a study that shows that the original theories supporting that the initial relationship between cells and mitochondria was entirely beneficial may not be true, and that instead the mitochondria was a parasitic bacteria that only became beneficial after switching the direction it transported ATP. By sequencing DNA of ancestors of mitochondria, and realizing how similar they were to each other, researchers concluded that mitochondria was originally a parasitic bacteria that stole ATP from the cell. This process is actually the exact opposite of what its role is now.

Connections
We have recently been discussing cells and cell structure. Mitochondria is an important organelle in any eukaryotic cell. This is also interesting because we were just recently discussing endosymbiotic theory, which is the theory that eukaryotic cells are formed by communities of prokaryotic cells. This is evidenced because mitochondria and chloroplasts were most likely initially separate prokaryotic cells. This article directly connects to this idea, creating new ideas for how all of this might have started. It also describes how mitochondria works, which we have also been talking about recently. Overall, it connects to endosymbiotic theory, cell struture, and how cells work.

Brazil Protects Giant Swathe of Amazon Rainforest

Allison Pearson
Author: Marcelo Teixeira
Published: October 21, 2014
URL: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brazil-protects-giant-swathe-of-amazon-rainforest/

Summary: On October 21st, the Brazilian government set aside a new reserve in the Amazon rain forest called the Alto Maues. This reserve is larger than the U.S. state of Delaware (almost 1.65 million acres), and is environmentally rich and practically untouched by humans. Putting that much land under government control is a very big deal because it means that hunting and forest-clearing are forbidden there. This has many positive effects on the environment: not only will protecting the rain forest reduce deforestation, it will also reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike most other countries, the main cause of the release of greenhouse gases in Brazil is due to deforestation rather than the burning of fossil fuels. Though this reserve will undoubtedly protect many species of birds, primates, and other mammals, the complete protection of the ecosystem is not guaranteed. Last year, illegal logging increased in the Amazon, destruction rising 29 percent from the previous year. Therefore, despite the fact that creating the Alto Maues reserve is a positive step for the Amazon, no one can be sure that deforestation of the area will disappear altogether.

Connection: This article is related to what we studied at the end of Chapter 36 about how human activities can alter ecosystems. Before the Brazilian government set up the reserve, deforestation of the amazon had negative effects on the surrounding environment, ultimately reducing the diversity of species. When humans cut down trees and burn them, they release carbon into the air, adding it to the atmosphere and therefore allowing more sunlight to reach the Earth. Another effect is that the lack of trees makes transpiration more difficult, altering the water cycle. Finally, if humans keep cutting down trees, we will reduce the number of species in that area and change the entire ecosystem. However, creating the Alto Maues reserve is a type of conservation biology (which we learned about in Chapter 36.5), which will hopefully prevent all of these negative effects and keep the Amazon diverse and more stable.

Mountain pine beetles causing wildfires??

October 24th, 2014

Mountain pine beetles get a bad rap for wildfires, study says

By: Kelly April Tyrell

September 29th, 2014

University of Wisconsin- Madison

http://news.wisc.edu/23161 

 

 

Summary:

       Pine beetles are a growing concern in northern forests in the US as they are able to eat their way through thousands upon thousands of longpole pine trees. The beetles cut off the water and nutrient circulation of the tree by eating under the bark called galleries, which quickly kills the tree. Once the tree is dead, its pine needs change to a more redish-brown state and then turn to a shade a lot like gray and then fall to the forest floor. The combination of the dead trunk and all the easily burnable pine needles scattered on the forest floor theorize that trees damaged and killed by these beetles are more prone to wildfires versus healthy trees. However,  UW-Madison zoology professor, Monica Turner and her graduate student, Brian Harvey concluded that in the past few years, even with the rapidly growing beetle population, the beetles barely contributed to the multiple severe wildfires that occurred in 2011- 2013. Professors are growing very concerned on how large the population of beetles is getting to and how the amount of living trees is decreasing. Many professors think that the dead trees contribute to the fire growing, yet the studies that Turner did in Idaho in 2012, demonstrated otherwise. Wildfires are a density independent factor and so according to Turner, the fire will burn whether the trees are dead or alive, but neither one burns faster or quicker or more violently. “No one says beetle-killed forests won’t burn,” says Turner, "but the data set looks at whether they burn with different severity compared to unattacked forests burning under similar conditions. We found that the severity of the outbreak of beetles had almost no effect on fire severity under moderate burning conditions." In conclusion, Turner proved that the beetles killing the trees are not to blame for the severity of wildfires, but they still are causing a serious problem in pine forests.

Connection:

       In our first unit, we discussed the effects of density dependent and independent factors. Both of those are discussed in the article I found. Firstly, the density of forest does not depend on the fire spreading and how long it lasts for. However, with a growing beetle population decreasing the amount of living trees, the density of forests does decrease, yet the fire will still burn rapidly. We also discussed how two different species with some sort of predator-prey or symbiotic relationship can effect each other. Like the wolf and moose population, as the beetle population increases, the healthy living population of longpole pine trees decreases. However, unlike the wolf and moose population which will drop and rise and continue in a cycle, the beetle population will only continue to grow unless some other factor like a disease kills them. The issue is that the size and amount of trees compared to the beetle is quite immense, so the food supply will not run out for a very long time. Finally, we also discussed certain symbiotic relationships, which in this case, I would classify as a parasitistic relationship because the beetle burrows into the tree for shelter and food and in the process cut off the tree's water and nutrient circulation system, therefore killing the tree.

FDA Cracks Down On Fake Ebola Cures Sold Online

Ben Dempsey
Author: Lauren Silverman
Published: October 23, 2014
Link: http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2014/10/23/358318848/fda-cracks-down-on-fake-ebola-cures-sold-online?utm_medium=RSS&utm_campaign=science


Summary: Since the recent Ebola outbreak in west Africa, many people have been worried that the virus would spread near to them and they could contract it. Nearly 5000 people have died as a result of the outbreak and there is no cure or vaccine yet though several are being worked on. Companies online have begun selling Ebola "cures" and "vaccines". These products are fake and don't have any impact on stopping the virus. The FDA (Food And Drug Administration) has started to send warnings to these companies threatening them with legal action if they do not stop selling their products. They are worried about them because they trick consumers into thinking they are safe from Ebola, and could have other unknown side effects. Some of these "cures" contain Nano Silver (anti-bacterial powder), Vitamin-C, and Snake Venom. 

Relevance: This article is relevant to what we are learning in class for several reasons. The first reason is that we are learning about cells and how they work. One thing that we learned is that cells in the human body produce antibodies. These antibodies are created to destroy viruses, such as Ebola. Before an antibody can be created to destroy a virus, it has to be specific to the type and strain of virus you are infected with, and you must have already beaten that virus before or been vaccinated. Without either of these things, you don't have the information needed to create antibodies that destroy the virus. There is not a vaccine to Ebola and few people have survived it, so most aren't immune. What we learned in class proves that these "cures" don't stop the virus and that is why it is relevant. 

Brazil must target smallholders to curb rising deforestation

Tejash Sikka
Author: -
Published: Monday October 20, 2014
Link: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/oct/20/brazil-smallholders-curb-rising-deforestation

Summary: On Monday, this article was released stating that Farmers' contributions to deforestation is rising and that it must be dealt with if America is to hold on to its recent grains. Efforts by the government caused a 77 percent decrease in deforestation in the Amazon between the years 2004 and 2011, but the rate of progress has slowed and deforestation is rising. The report stated that between 2004 and 2011, landowners exceeding 500 hectares (1,235 acres) of owned property were held responsible for about 48 percent of the deforestation in the Amazon. Areas owned by people who possess land smaller than a farm still accounted for 12 percent of the forests destroyed during the same period. However, since 2005, the contribution to yearly deforestation by the largest landowners has decreased by 63 percent, while that of the people possessing land smaller than a farm has increased by 69 percent, the report said. In 2013, deforestation rates had increased by 28% compared with the year before. Part of the reason of the rise of deforestation was that multiple conservation areas had been scaled down or had their protection status changed. According to Godar, projects in the Amazon since 2009, such as the building of new roads and dams, may also be contributing factors to Brazil’s increasing deforestation rates. Godar explained that further reductions in deforestation in the Amazon are difficult, because deforestation is occurring in smaller and more remote areas, and is therefore harder to catch or spot, and is more costly to handle. 

Connection: This article connects to chapter 36, because it mentions ideas about the carbon cycle and greenhouse effect, biodiversity, and conservation of land. This article relates to the carbon chemical cycle and the greenhouse effect because plants, when dead, release a gas called carbon dioxide, and when humans cut down the forests, all of the carbon dioxide gets released into the air. This is where the greenhouse effect come into play. The greenhouse effect is the process by which atmospheric gases trap heat. Carbon is a greenhouse gas, so it traps in heat in the Earth's atmosphere, which makes the climate of the Earth hotter overtime. This article relates to conservation of land because it stated that the building of new roads and dams are contributing factors to deforestation rates. All these new roads and dams being built are destroying many habitats, and making many kinds of animals endangered. This article relates to biodiversity because the Amazon rain forest is a tropical rain forest, and tropical rain forests have the greatest diversity of life. Tropical forests have an estimated 50 percent of all known species on Earth, and getting rid of those forests means getting rid of biodiversity, because of all the species' habitats getting destroyed, and all of the species getting killed in the process of deforestation. This is how the article relates to the fields of study that we have been learning about in biology this term.

Proteins That Can Control Diabetes

Craig Engert
Website:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/08/140805132248.htm
Date of Publication:
August 5th, 2014
Author:
Not applicable

Proteins That Can Control Diabetes
Summary: The article, "New 'whey' to control Diabetes" describes how a protein called, "whey" could be a solution to diabetes. People take medication to control their diabetes. Professor Daniela Jakubowicz and Doctor Julio Wainstein at Tel Aviv University of the Wolfson Medical Center's Diabetes Unit, professor Oren Froy of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and professor Bo Ahren of Lund University in Sweden have come to the conclusion that their is a way to control diabetes without medication. The solution are whey proteins. Whey proteins in some cases are so effective that they eliminate the need of insulin treatment completely. The researchers came up with the hypothesis; "'We hypothesized that stimulating GLP-1 production by consuming whey protein before a meal would enhance insulin secretion and have beneficial glucose-lowering effects in type 2 diabetes,' Prof. Jakubowicz said" (New 'whey' to control Diabetes). The researchers in the article used 15 people with well controlled type two diabetes at Wolfson Medical Center, and randomly gave some of them 250 milliliters of water mixed with whey proteins or placebo a drug proven to control diabetes. In the trial they then took the blood sugar level of the individuals at 15, 30, 60, 120, 150 and 180 minutes after eating a sugar rich meal. They found at earlier stages the effects of whey were almost the same as placebo, however, at the 180 minute interval glucose levels were reduced by 28 percent for the people who were treated with whey proteins. Proving that whey is a valid way of controlling diabetes.

Connections: This article pertains to our unit on macromolecules. In Unit 2  Chapter 5 we learned about the four macromolecules of life. They are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. . Proteins properties are decided by their amino acids. Their amino acids are organized in long chains called polypeptides. The polypeptides will eventually form a protein such as whey. As described on our Unit 2  Chapter 5 test many people go on heavy carbohydrate diets of just bread and rice. The diet lacks proteins such as whey and many others which are essential to life. Thus, even having a proper diet of protein might fix some of health issues such as diabetes. Proteins are major discussion in class and provide a varieties of benefits from texture of our hair to disease fighting proteins. Furthermore, it can relate to Chapter 2 because the use of scientific method. They had the observation of high milk intake equates to a lower blood sugar, came up with a hypothesis and then tested the data. The dependent variable being the blood sugar variable and the independent variable being the treatment before eating the meal. Thus, the text shows evidence of the scientific method.

Mangroves Protecting Corals From Climate Change

Mangroves Protecting Corals From Climate Change
10/23/14
Tiffany Chan

Website Posted October 8, 2014
Written By Caroline Rogers
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/10/141008131601.htm

Summary: Research has been done by Eckerd College and the U.S. Geological Survey on coral living and growing on mangrove tree roots in the U.S. Virgin Islands. It is thought that changing temperatures, pH, and high levels of solar radiation are causing the corals to seek refuge under these trees. The mangrove trees prevents coral bleaching from the sun and protects it from water acidity. Because of the slowed rate of coral bleaching, the coral will probably live longer. In addition, various chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of the mangrove trees' habitat maintains the water's pH levels. With the acidity levels of the ocean rising, coral, being extremely sensitive to a change in pH, would find the mangrove trees' habitat ideal. Because of change in their location, the corals will probably survive longer. With climate and conditions of habitats of various organisms changing, it is hoped that other organisms can adapt like the corals have.

Connection:By protection the corals from various things like coral bleaching, and a change in pH, the mangrove trees and the corals have a symbiotic relationship. In the ecosystems unit, symbiosis was a topic. The corals are helped by the mangrove trees since they are provided shelter and protected by the trees' roots from changing temperatures, solar radiation, and increasing acidity of the water. Because of this, this relationship is commensalism where one organism benefits and the other is neither affected nor harmed. Also, in the matter and energy unit, we were told that organisms were very sensitive to a change in pH. For example, human blood is around the pH level 7. If an organism's habitat strays too far from the required pH, it is most likely that the organisms will die. Because of this, the level of pH is crucial to the well-being of an environment. 

Mitochondria- How They First Appeared and Why They Stayed

Jason Lei

Author: University of Virginia
Date: October 16, 2014
Source: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/10/141016165955.htm


Summary:
Mitochondria can be found in almost any eukaryotic cell, and are what supply ATP (adenosene triphosphate)- the molecular "currency" and main source of energy, to the cell through cellular respiration. However, mitochondria's ancestors were energy-stealing parasites. The development of mitochondria started about 2 million years ago. Mitochondria started as a simple bacteria, which was enveloped and swallowed by a eukaryotic cell, where it took ATP from the cell, and only became like the mitochondria we know today when it switched its purpose, giving ATP to the cell instead. This combination and changing of purpose of mitochondria is extremely important to evolutionray life, however its sudden appearance and change still remains clouded in mystery. They allowed eukaryotic cells to improve and evolve to a much greater extent by providing a much quicker and easier source of energy. Mitochondria can also be used to trace human history of evolution and DNA.

Connection:
Mitochondria have many connections to what we have learned in class. Mitochondria are an essential organelle in eukaryotic cells, and is directly connected to cellular respiration in a cell. They create ATP which the cell uses to carry out its functions. Mitochondria changed over time from being an energy-stealing parasite, to becoming an essential energy-"creating" organelle in eukaryotic cells. This is a change of symbiotic relationships over time, as well as evolution to best suit its surroundings. Not only that, but by offering a reliable source of energy, mitochondria allowed cells to evolve at a much quicker pace than without, and without it the vast biodiversity we see today would likely be reduced to simple bacteria floating around. Over all, mitochondria originated as a simple bacteria that feed off energy in cells, and evolved to provide energy o the cell and became as essential to the cell as any other part of it.

Biodiversity in the balance, how is it maintained?

Lynn Rushkin
Published: September 3, 2014
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/09/140903162635.htm

The article "Biodiversity in the balance, how is it maintained?" describes how scientists are trying to find explanations and theories of how biodiversity is sustained so they can help protect it. Although most students learn that no two organisms that share the same niche can co-exist, this rule is not always true in the real world. The article gave the example of two organism, the herring and the sprat, that live in the Baltic Sea. Both of them occupy similar niches, but they are able to co-exist. A theory called Relative Nonlinearity of Competition (RNC) states that two organisms with similar niches can live alongside each other if they react differently to limiting factors and resources avaliable which can help the species benefit from each other. This theory was proved unstable because when it is tested, most of the time one species would out compete the other for resources. Scientists believe that further research is needed to find a more accurate explaination of factors that contribute to biodiversity.

This article relates to our studies in ecology and the relationship between species in an ecosystem. For example, biodiversity, which is the main topic of the article, was a concept that we learned in chapter 36. Biodiversity is important to nature because species rely on other species for food and shelter. So, when a species goes extinct or is outcompeted it affects the whole ecosystem. This is why the scientists in the article are working hard to preserve biodiversity. The article also mentions how niches, which is the role of a species in its ecosystem, contribute to competitive exclusion which is when one species out competes another species for resources (from chapter 35). In addition, the article talks about Relative Nonlinearity of Competition which was a theory that was found to be unstable when tested. This relates to our study on the scientific method and proving/disproving theories (from chapter 2).

Enzyme used in antidepressants could help researchers develop prostate cancer treatments

Simon Koch-Sultan
Author: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center
Published: June 1, 2014
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/06/140601113953.htm

Summary:
According to the source, the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, an international team of scientists affiliated with the aforementioned medical center and  discovered that an enzyme commonly used as a target for antidepressants may also promote the growth of prostate cancer. Suppressing the enzyme monoamine oxidase A, or MAOA, in lab mice drastically reduced the growth of prostate tumors. MAOA deactivates and breaks down neurotransmitters in the central nervous system  to limit their numbers. Too much MAOA can cause depression, which is the purpose of MAOA-supressing drugs, and too little can lead to autism, aggression, and general anxiety, but this paper was the first one to suggest that it is linked to prostate tumors flourishing. Now, doctors can suppress the enzyme and supplement the treatments that are currently used to cure prostate cancer.

Relevance:
This article relates to the enzyme section of our matter and energy unit. In class, we discussed the function of the basic enzyme sucrase, which breaks down sucrose into readily accesible glucose and fructose, and in our most recent lab, we learned how the enzyme catalase neutralizes the threat of hydrogen peroxide in the human body. Too little of either enzyme would be bad for us. This article explains a similar issue, describing what monoamine oxidase A can do both to benefit, and harm the body in varying quantities. It mentions the drugs used to suppress the enzyme, an effect not unlike when we put the catalase in situations where it would denature, and this remarkable new benefit from suppressing it: inhibiting the proliferation of cancerous tumors, which matters to anyone who is suffering from prostate cancer and their families. 

How ferns adapted to one of Earth's newest and most extreme environments

Amrita Krishnakumar
Author: University of Bristol
Published: October 23, 2014
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/10/141023142312.htm

Summary: Ferns have been in existence since over 200 years ago, during the Age of the Dinosaurs. However, a type of Fern has been growing in the Andean Mountains. Dr. Patricia Sanchez-Baracaldo and Dr. Gavin Thomas have been experimenting with molecular and morphological to study the unique temperatures and weather patterns of the mountains. In the Andean Mountains the extreme temperatures do not usually grow ferns. This new ecosystem is called the páramo, and was created around 3 to 5 million years ago, when the Andes underwent a major uplifting event. This provided new ecological opportunities for plants to grow and survive in. Higher altitudes cause the temperatures to fluctuate between very cold nights and very hot days. Many plants have adapted to the temperatures by changing their leaf structure and form so that they can survive in the climate. Both Dr.'s responded to the adaptations of the ferns. "These ferns are remarkable because...they quickly evolved a new morphology as a response to new and extreme environmental conditions. It's fascinating to notice that, by a process known as convergent evolution, whereby similar features evolve independently in species of different lineages, cloud forest ferns arrived at the same 'solution' in response to the same environmental pressures." It is truly amazing how the ferns were able to adapt to their surroundings and survive in an area with extreme temperatures.

Connections: This article relates to the last unit that we covered in Biology. In our class, we learnt about the how adaptations help organisms survive in their niches. Apart from the plants and animals adapting, we learnt about competition between different species causing some to become extinct. Although, there were no species competing with the fern, the temperature caused the fern's characteristics to change and allow it to grow in conditions different from it's suggested temperature. During class we also read an article in class called, "But how could a cell evolve?" by Michael J. Behe. In this article, it talked about how evolution did not appear out of thin air, but was a slow and complex process that required intelligence to produce them. The article connected back to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin had developed a theory, that natural selection can change a species in small ways, causing a population to change color or size over the course of several generations. This theory also supports the idea of adaptation. Both of these ideas together describe the phenomenon occurring in the Andes Mountains.

Ocean Acidification affecting squid?

 Jordan Blocher 

Author: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Date Published: September 26th, 2014

Link: http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=201109

Summary: Ocean acidification is becoming more and more of an issue in todays world, and common marine animals are now expected to pay the price for the careless actions of humans. The acidification is capable of impacting the inner ears of different types of squid. Similarly to humans, the ears are utilized by squid as an orientation tool, and without their inner ears squids likely would not be able to swim straight, would have a greater difficulty capturing a prey because the lack of inner ears would cause total chaos and make it so the squid could hardly catch fish. It isn't certain this would happen, but scientists believe it to be a very real and unfortunate possibility. Scientists have also found, that squid eggs exposed to higher content of CO2 take longer to hatch, thus exposing them for larger periods of time to the biotic limiting factor of predation. Scientists also note that squid eggs exposed to high levels of CO2 grow and develop at a slower rate than squid eggs in areas of low CO2 content. Very few species that humans come into contact with on a day to day basis don't at one point in their lives, eat squid, or get eaten by squid. If squid were to be removed from an ecosystem, everything would change. And many species wouldn't be able to survive.

Connection: This video ties into several topics we have covered thus far this year. The concept of ocean acidification is one which we have spent large quantities of time on, especially since ocean acidification goes hand in hand with global warming and the idea that humans impact both our own atmosphere and the ecosystems of many different species including squid, when we put large amounts of CO2 into the air. We learned that the oceans bear the burden of absorbing very large quantities of CO2, and the oceans essentially act as regulators for the amount of CO2 within our own atmosphere. However, over the past hundred years or so, humans have put more carbon dioxide into the air than is natural. Therefore, the oceans absorb more CO2 than is natural, thus impacting oceanic creatures such as squid. We have learned this year, about what happens when a keystone species is removed from an ecosystem, and the results can often be devastating. If there are four species which feed solely upon squid, and then the number of squid decrease because fewer are born because more squid eggs are being eaten since it takes longer for them to hatch, all four species would be in competition for the few squid that survive, and then from there it would be survival of the fittest. Not all four of those species could survive, because the number of squid available acts as a limiting factor on all four of the species. When there is an abundant amount of squid, all four species can thrive, but when there is only enough for one species, all the rest die out. Therefore we can conclude that carbon dioxide content can act as an abiotic limiting factor within ocean communities.

Brazil declares new protected area larger than Delaware

Meera Singh

Author: Morgan Erickson-Davis

Published: October 23, 2014

Link: http://news.mongabay.com/2014/1023-gfrn-morgan-brazil-declares-federal-reserve.html

Summary: A few days ago, the Brazilian government created a new rainforest reserve, called Alto Maues, in the Amazon. The reserve is larger than the U.S. state of Delaware. Deforestation and development of roads are banned in this area, which will allow many endangered species in the forest to make a recovery. The main goal of the reserve is to lower greenhouse gas emissions. For most countries, the majority of their greenhouse gas emissions is a result of burning fossil fuels, but for Brazil, the high deforestation rate is the main cause. When trees are cut down, carbon stored in them is released into the atmosphere. Between 2001 and 2012, about 34 million hectares of forest were lost to deforestation. Over the past decade, Brazil has made some successful efforts to reduce this. In fact, the efforts saved about 3.2 billion tons of CO2 emissions from being released into the atmosphere--the equivalent of stopping the use of cars in the U.S.A for three years. However, there were still high amounts of trees being cut down. For instance, about 360,000 hectares of forest were removed from the Triunfo do Xingo Environmental Protection Area between 2001 and 2012. Hopefully, the deforestation ban in the new Alto Maues reserve will be more successful in reducing Brazil's deforestation and carbon emission rates. 

Connection: This article has a strong connection to chapter 36, part of our first unit of study, which included chemical cycles and conservation. First of all, the banning of development of roads and deforestation connects to conservation. The reduction in habitat loss and habitat fragmentation in Brazil will help the endangered species recover and continue to live in the area. The rainforest is a "hot spot" of biodiversity, so protecting it helps protect biodiversity. Also, the high deforestation rates demonstrate how humans are altering the carbon cycle. By cutting down so many trees, for example in Brazil, we release very large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere. Since carbon is a greenhouse gas, it traps heat in the earth's atmosphere and warms the climate, altering it faster than Earth's organisms can adapt. Global warming needs to be slowed down as soon as possible, and Brazil's creation of the Alto Maue reserve is a great way to approach this. Conservation, biodiversity, greenhouse gas emissions, and humans' effects on these things were detailed in Chapter 36, providing a connection from this article to our units of study.

Florida lizards evolve rapidly, within 15 years and 20 generations

Rebecca Morse
Author: -
Published: October 23rd, 2014
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/10/141023142306.htm

Summary: This article describes how a native species of lizards living in Florida, named Carolina anoles (or green anoles), has evolved quickly due to the introduction of an invasive species of lizards from Cuba. This invasive species, called Cuban anoles (or brown anoles), began to compete with the green anoles for the same food and space. Within a few months, the green anoles had begun to move to higher perches in trees as brown anoles competed for the lower branches. Because the higher branches were smoother and not as thick as the ones they previously occupied, the Carolina anoles' feet started evolving. Over a period of fifteen years and throughout twenty generations, these lizards' toe pads became larger, and they gained more sticky scales on their feet to help them grip the branches. Yoel Stuart, the lead author of this study, also observed that adults of each species have been known to eat the young of the other species, which could lead hatchlings to need to move into the trees hastily to avoid being eaten. This could be another reason as to why the toe pads of the green anoles evolved to be larger after brown anoles began to compete with them. This change occurred quite rapidly; to fully comprehend this example of evolution, the article states that if human height were evolving at the same rate these lizards' feet were, the average American male height would jump from 5 foot 9 inches to 6 foot 4 inches over the course of twenty generations. The article then goes on to detail how this study is one of only a few studies that documents "character displacement" well. Character displacement is what biologists define as similar species competing and, as a result, evolving differences which then allow them to occupy separate niches.

Connection: This particular article relates to the topics we have studied so far in many ways. In our first unit this year, we learned about ecology, which includes the subjects of invasive species, competition, and niches found in chapter 35. In that chapter, we learned about how invasive species are organisms that humans have moved from their original location to a new geographic place. Many times, these non-native species have outcompeted or preyed on native ones, pushing them out and taking over. This relates to the Cuban anoles competing with the Carolina anoles for food and space, which are part of the Carolina anole's niche. A niche is defined as a living arrangement that includes an organism's food sources, habitat, when it is active, and other factors that constitute its job. What was different about these two species was that their case did not fit with the Competitive Exclusion Principle we learned about, which states that two different species cannot live in the same niche and habitat at the same time. Instead, this study showed character displacement. Recently, we read an article titled "But How Could A Cell Evolve?" by Michael J. Behe, which questioned Darwin's Theory of Evolution. We have not learned a lot about Darwin in our studies so far this year, but this article about cells did give an example of evolution that relates to the lizards, which was also the same example detailed in the article about Florida lizards. Darwin observed that the beaks of two species of finches in the Galapagos Islands evolved and changed their shape. This resulted in the finches adapting to separate food sources, so that although they had originally occupied the same niche, they evolved to be able to coexist, just like green anoles have evolved to be capable of coexisting with the green anoles.

No Single Explanation for Biodiversity in Madagascar

Ryan Whitley

Author: Robin Ann Smith

Published: October 10th, 2014

Link: http://today.duke.edu/2014/10/madagascarbiodiversity

Summary: In this article, Robin Ann Smith, a biology professor at Duke University, discusses the findings of an experiment done by Jason Brown of City College of New York and Anne Yoder, another Duke biologist. The goal of this study was to determine the impact of climate change and global warming on the incredibly biodiverse island of Madagascar. They did this by studying the geographic distribution of several species on Madagascar, and thus determined the effects climate change would have on different species. The results of their experiment was that different species would be impacted in different ways, with some receiving a benefit from this change and others feeling a negative impact. The team of scientists created a model with many species to see what impact climate change would have on different species. However, one model was not enough to capture all of the species living on this island, so they and to create more models. According to Yoder, "we found that different groups of species have diversified for different reasons" (No Single Explanation...). Also, other studies have shown that some of Madagascar's reptiles and amphibians have already begun to move upward in elevation to stay in their specific temperature ranges. Also, they found that around 40% of Madagascar's reptiles are at risk of losing their homes due to logging and farming in their normal forest homes. 

Connection: This is very relevant to our studies so far this year.  We have learned about what causes the different temperature ranges and climates to be around which latitudes due to circulation cells (Chapter 34), and this plays a major role in the biodiversity of Madagascar. Also, we have discussed Discovery Science and Hypothesis Based Science, and the differences between the two (Chapter 2). In this experiment, discovery science was used in that the scientists looked at a lot of trends and patterns they had discovered and drew a conclusion from this. Also, we have talked about the different biomes (Chapter 34), which has to do also with the circulation currents, and how different biomes are suitable for different types of life and amounts of biodiversity. The use of the Scientific Method (Chapter 2) was also on display in this experiment. This study was also a good example of the interactions within a community (Chapter 35), especially one as biologically diverse as Madagascar. 

Snakes protect themselves from their own venom by producing a natural chelating agent

Hunter Litterio
Author: L.J. Devon
Published: March 01, 2014
Link:http://www.naturalnews.com/044107_snake_venom_chelating_agent_natural_protection.html

Summary: L.J. Devon, the author of the article, states that the venom of snakes is harmful to human systems and many scientists wondered why the snake wasn't harmed by it's own toxins. He then explains that the toxins in a snakes venom have a lot of metal ions, and protein enzymes in them. The enzymes in snake venom is used to speed up the chemical reactions the toxin inflicted on the human it is in, making the toxin spread and become harmful quicker. Devon then says several common enzymes found in snake venom and what it does to the human body such as Cholinesterase which attacks the central nervous system, and relaxes muscles making it hard for the person to move. Scientist C.R. Goucher and H.H. Flowers used chelating agents EDTA and DTPA to observe the relationship with snake toxin. Chelating agents break apart metal ions which can cause poisoning in humans, and the chelaters broke up the enzymes in snake toxin which could be the reason why snakes don't feel the affects of toxin within themselves. He later explains how further experimenting shows that snakes produce citrate which is a natural chelating agent. It means that snakes produce something in their toxin so that it doesn't harm itself.

Connection: This article connects back to previous units as not only does it display the uses of enzymes in nature connecting to chapter five, but it also displays the use of the scientific method used in chapter two. The scientific method is used to make new discoveries by making observations. In this particular study the observation was that humans were affected greatly by snake toxins, however snakes weren't, which could lead to hypotheses being made about the reason for this. Then people ran experiments to first realize that metal ions were prevalent in snake venom. After that more tests were run and scientists realized that snakes had enzymes in the toxins. Later chelating agents were combined with snake venom which led to less potent toxins, leading to predictions that snakes produced natural chelating agents in themselves to avoid the harm of their toxin. Lastly more tests were run which found the existence of a chelating agent in snakes leading to conclusions being drawn.

New Enzyme Targets for Selective Cancer Therapies

Shay Lukas
Author: Bryan Alary
Published: August 22, 2014
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/08/140822132932.htm



Summary: Research is being conducted in the University of Alberta chemistry lab that could revolutionize the treatment of cancer. This research is heavily based on an enzyme called neuraminidase. Chemistry professor Christopher Cairo recently synthesized a compound that targets and prevents the activity of neuraminidase with his team, creating an enzyme inhibitor.  According to information obtained from brain tumor examination, this specific enzyme is found to be overstimulating in certain cancers. With the combined effort of researchers from the University of Milan, Cairo discovered neuraminidase to be excessive in glioblastoma cells, a type of brain cancer. The team from Milan tested Cairo's inhibitor and found that it turned the glioblastoma into normal cells. It also caused the cells to stop growing. This information is very important for therapeutics and future cancer treatments. Although the inhibitor is not a drug itself, it is a very important factor to be considered for future drugs. Research on this issue also largely focuses on the difference between carbohydrates on cancer cells versus normal cells. The carbohydrates on the cell surface impact how each cell interacts with one another, which is important in diseases like cancer. Enzymes are important in this process, so the discovery of neuraminidase and it's connection to cancer could be the answer scientists and doctors need.

Connection: This article and research relates to our curriculum in a few different ways. First, our studies of enzymes are closely connected to these discoveries. The majority of this specific research at the University of Alberta revolves around a type of enzyme. Researchers studied the effects of this enzyme, neuraminidase, and where it was concentrated. This is similar to how we closely examined the effects of the enzyme catalase. We conducted experiments and collected data, just like Cairo and his team. We talked about enzymes' importance and what they do in human cells, which is something that was closely studied and mentioned in this article. Another key concept in both our class and the selective cancer study are carbohydrates. We discussed carbohydrates as one of the four macromolecules needed for life. We also studied the functions they have in our body and our cells. In Bryan Alary's article, carbohydrates are explained as important factors in how cells interact with each other. They form on the  cell's surface and effect how cells connect with each other. This can completely change how cancer cells spread and create. Both enzymes and carbohydrates are huge concepts in our classroom, as well as  Cairo's research and study.

Is climate change to blame for the Ebola outbreak?

Michael Liu

Author: Ruth Schuster
Published: Oct. 21 2014
Link: http://www.haaretz.com/life/science-medicine/.premium-1.621945

Ruth Schuster, the author of the article discussed the possible sources of the virus Ebola and why human obtained the virus. She stated the most widely accepted theory of how human obtained Ebola, by coming into contact with an animal that does not usually have direct contact with human. Ruth Schuster discussed the fact that global warming caused by human is changing the face of the earth, and that it would affect wildlife behavior(e.g population, location) and human activities. The author discussed how climate change affect the interactions between animals and human, causing human to come into more contact with nature, increasing the possibility of getting infected with something. She stated that if the animals that carry a certain disease(vectors) had an increase in their population due to the climate change, it could cause a wider spread of this disease. The author used the example of West Nile Virus to demonstrate how climate change can cause a wider spread of a disease. West Nile virus, is a disease spread by mosquitos, and mosquitos appreciates warm climate, due to global warming, mosquitos's habitat expanded dramatically, and the disease spread further than it ever would have, West Nile Virus had gone global due to climate change. The author also discussed the situation in West Africa, as climate change decimates crops, people resort to eating more wild animals, which may include animals carrying ebola.

This article relates to what we learned because it is an example of human changing environment and how that may affects human. We learned that the environment is changing due to human activities in the ecology unit, and it may result in a series of negative events. Human activities such as carbon released from deforestation and burning fossil fuels results in a number of climate changes, which may have increased the  likelihood of human engaging in usually close contact with certain animals, and helped the population of vectors for ebola to grow. Ebola is a possible outcome of human activities. 

Stem cell 'major discovery' claimed

Stem cell 'major discovery' claimed  By James GallagherHealth and science reporter, BBC News

Nilay Maity


http://m.bbc.com/news/health-25917270

Summary: Scientists in Japan have recently discovered that stem cells can be made by dipping blood cells into acid.  Stem cells can change to any tissue in our body, and are  sing tested to see if they can treat essential parts of our body like the heart, brain and eyes. The human body has many specific cells with many specific jobs however stem cells can become any one of these cells. Stem cells could be the first step into body regeneration. Nobel prize winning scientists have even said that skin cells can be reprogrammed to become stem cells. Researchers have created stem cells by shocking blood cells with acid. The breakthrough was made while testing mouse blood, but we can the same results with human blood. If it works as well in humans as it does in mice this could be a cheaper and safer way to reprogram cells than other personalized cell reprogramming technologies.

Connection: This connects to our class because we are studying human cells and their role in the human body. This article is explaining how stem cells can replace crucial cells in the human body. The discovery that stem cells can be created by shocking  blood cells with acid will be huge for medicinal purposes. We can replace these cells for heart and lung cells so they can properly function. We are learning all the different functions of specific cells and their organelles, soon we will see how these parts of cells can stop working and stem cells could be a way to replace them. Now we can figure how create stem cells quickly and efficiently to replace deteriorated cells anywhere in the body.

Bill Nye: You Don’t Need to Be a Scientist to Shut Down Climate Change Deniers

Emily Jeong
Author: Lindsay Haskell
Published: October 22, 2014 (on Facebook page, "Our Time")
Link: http://www.attn.com/stories/228/bill-nye-you-don%E2%80%99t-need-be-scientist-shut-down-climate-change-deniers?utm_source=social&utm_medium=facebook&utm_campaign=billnyecc

Summary: Lindsay Haskell, the author of the article, refers to Bill Nye the Science Guy's video about climate change and Ben Schneider, an expert on climate change. In the video, Bill explains how no one has an excuse to not be aware of climate change in the atmosphere. He uses himself as an example, saying that he's a mechanical engineer but he still understands what climate change is and knows what is causing it. He addresses how ignorant people are to this fast paced climate change and explains how important it is that one realizes how serious this problem is. After the video, the author has a section in which Ben Schneider, Communications Director of Defend Our Future, answers clarifying questions about climate change, like what it is, why the current climate change is different from others, why it's happening, what the effects of climate change are, why it affects people personally, how to fight climate change, and more. Ben Schneider explains climate change as the change in the Earth's atmosphere as a result of human activity. He emphasizes that the past natural changes in climate is different from the current one because humans (and not natural sources) are releasing carbon dioxide rapidly, at a pace that is much faster than any other time in Earth's history.

Connection: Although we only had a short activity in which we learned about climate change, I thought this article was appropriate. It answers many questions one might have about climate change very succinctly. It describes how carbon dioxide is affecting the atmosphere more severely than in the past, calling this climate change an "environmental emergency," just like we learned in class through the activity. This article not only addresses the climate change, but also addresses the pseudoscience that some believe in, like the ones we learned, presented, and took notes on in class. Bill in the video explains how the climate change caused by humans is a scientific fact, just like how the Earth is round. He goes on to explain how some believe that the climate change is not real, like how some believe that the Earth is flat. These beliefs are pseudoscience that we learned about through the pseudoscience activity. Bill tries to break these unrealistic beliefs and truly reinforce the importance of being aware of the facts.