http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20141127-lucy-fossil-revealed-our-origins

The "Lucy" Fossil Rewrote The Story of Humanity

November 27 2014 

Melissa Hoggenbom

Summary: I have chosen an article about a skeleton discovered that was around 3.2 million years old which the scientists on the team named Lucy because it looked female due to the size of the skeleton. Lucy was part of a new specie classified officially as Austrolopithecus Afarensis. Scientists who discovered the fossils noticed that the brain size was considerably larger than that of a baboon's and the teeth were more like that of a human child, rather than a Chimpanzee. They also concluded that this new specie walked upright due to the location of the foramen magnum. The skeleton of Lucy was described to be more ape like than other Austrolopithecus which means she could be the earliest human skeleton that we have ever found. Studies have shown the reason she became a biped was because she was expanding her diet and was able to access food that apes weren't able to get. 

Connection: This connects to evolution because the discovery of a species this closely related to human suggests where the human race actually originated from. At the time of the discovery of the African skull in 1925 the most popular belief was that the human race was changed influentially in Asia and Europe, and was discredited as just another chimp that was unimportant. The finding of a new species in Africa in between human and chimp that dates back 2.8 million years is a crucial piece of evidence in order for us to know how we became like we are today. It also showed that we became bipeds because because of the expansion of the diet that would've been near impossible as a quadraped. Lucy may be the key o discovering how humans came to be. 

By ‘Editing’ Plant Genes, Companies Avoid Regulation

Lynn Rushkin
Published: Jan 1, 2015
Link: http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/02/business/energy-environment/a-gray-area-in-regulation-of-genetically-modified-crops.html?_r=0

Summary: The article "By ‘Editing’ Plant Genes, Companies Avoid Regulation" describes how certain companies are developing genetically modified crops and are avoiding regulation by using new techniques that do not qualify as genetic modification. For example, the Scotts Miracle-Gro Company is producing genetically modified grass by using genes only from other plants, and inserting the genes into the plant using a gene gum instead of a bacterium. Because this method does not qualify as genetic modification, the Scotts Miracle-Gro Company can market their genetically modified grass without needing federal approval. Additionally Cibus, a privately held San Diego company, is producing canola that is herbicide resistant by altering the existing DNA in the canola rather than inserting genes making the canola not transgenic. However, some critics of this method say that altering the genome of the plant might also add other unintended changes. The process also involves growing plant cells and tissues on a dish which can lead to mutations. These new techniques have many researchers around the world wondering if they should be regulated and how.

Connection: This article relates to our unit of genetics and biotechnology. It explains that in genetic modification a gene from one organism is inserted into the plasmid of a bacteria which is then inserted into another organism. It is also described how companies have cleverly found methods that are slightly different than traditional genetic modification. This connects to the process of genetic modification which we learned in chapter 13. The article also mentions critics and researchers that are either for or against the new methods of genetic modification. Some critics have complaints that the new methods will lead to undesired results or mutations, meanwhile some people believe that these methods are safe and do not need regulation. This relates to the GMO controversy that we also learned in chapter 13. Finally, the article also mentions how plants exposed to radiation or chemicals can randomly develop a mutation that leads to a desired trait which can be passed down from generation to generation. Mutation is a topic that we covered in chapters 11 and 14.

Maui County Genetically Modified Organism Moratorium Initiative 

Ryan Whitley

Source: BallotPedia

Date Published: November 28, 2014

Link: http://ballotpedia.org/Maui_County_Genetically_Modified_Organism_Moratorium_Initiative_%28November_2014%29

Summary: On the November 4th ballot in Maui County, Hawaii, a GMO moratorium, or temporary stoppage was passed by the voters. This initiative was created in order to stop the growth or testing genetically modified/engineered plants, and also to stop the creation of such products until a public health and environmental study had been completed to show that these products and the way they are grown had no negative impact on the environment. The main company affected by this is Monsanto, the GMO giant. This type of vote has been held before in different parts of the United States, and GMO's are completely banned in many other countries. In Jackson County, Oregon, a complete GMO ban was voted in by voters in a very similar manner to this ballot in Hawaii, which only called for a moratorium. If this type of vote passed in other places in the United States, this could be very troubling for Monsanto. Due to the vote, Monsanto and Dow Chemical filed a lawsuit against this moratorium, and it has been delayed until March 31st. 

Connection: This news article has a very clear connection to something we have studied quite recently. In class, we discussed the benefits and drawbacks of using GMO's, and how they might impact the environment. We also had a debate on the manner, and as a class we were unable to decide whether the usefulness of GMO's outweighed the potential negative impacts, such as allergies or Super Weeds that would eventually become resistant to the chemicals used to kill them. We also discussed how GMO's are completely banned in most of Europe and in many other parts of the world. In this instance, the residents of Maui County decided that they wanted to know exactly what using GMO's was doing to the land on which they grow their food, as GMO's in general have not been researched extensively enough to definitively say whether they are completely positive or negative, and as we agreed as a class, they are likely a combination of good and bad. 

Clymene Dolphins

Sachit Murali
Author - Charles Q. Choi
Published: January 11, 2014
Link: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140111-hybrid-dolphin-species-ocean-animal-science/  

Summary: The Clymene Dolphins or about seven feet long (or 2.1 meters) and are a new hybrid dolphin through cross breeding, found out by marine biologists. This dolphin was originally found in 1981 but was considered an ancestor of the spinner dolphin. This was wrong and was because these dolphins were actually a completely different species except that was only recently found out. These dolphins are hybrids. Biologists sampled 15 clymene, 21 spinner dolphins and found out that the nuclear DNA was very different to that of the spinner dolphin. In fact the striped dolphin resembled the clymene dolphin DNA more closely than that of the clymene. This caught of a lot of scientists off guard, because this meant that this new dolphin is a hybrid of the striped dolphin and the spinner dolphin. Now this also meant that this was a speciation or the creation of a new species. Scientists have not yet figured out whether or not these dolphins are infertile or not. They predict that they will be infertile just like the mule.

Connections:
In class we have been studying a lot about evolution and how species evolve. In class we learned about how certain species get reproduced through natural selection. Well the clymene dolphin was chosen through natural selection. Also the creation of a new species or speciation is something we have discussed in class which is a result of natural selection. This dolphin just like in Darwin's theory was able to survive in its environment and out compete other dolphins allowing certain DNA to be passed on making it unique and eventually its own species. It has the traits of the spinner dolphin, and the DNA of the striped dolphin but it is its own species. The clymene Dolphin.

New Genome Editing Method Cures Hemophilia in Mice

Amanda Carotenuto
http://www.hcplive.com/publications/hemophilia-reports/2014/december2014/Hemophilia-Cured-in-Mice-Models-Using-New-Genome-Editing-Method-

Rachek Lutz

5 January 2015

Summary: A new genome editing method has been developed by researchers at Stanford University School of Medicine. This technique has successfully cured hemophilia in mice, and could possibly lead to longer lasting and safer methods then the one that currently exists. This was accomplished by inserting a clotting factor gene into about 1% of the mouse's liver cells, which produced enough of those cells with the added gene to cure this disease. It is believed that this method opens up the possibility of curing genetic disease for entire lifetimes. This new method also does not use nucleases and promoters to cut up and activate the gene that has been inserted, and is safer to use, as promoters and nucleases may have "significant adverse effects".

Connection: This study connects to the unit on molecular genetics, as well as the one on heredity. In the molecular genetics unit, we learned about nucleases and how genes are turned on and off. The unit also covered genetic engineering, and how genes are cut up and moved or replaced, which is what the above method is attempting to replace. It also does not need promoters, which we learned about how it would be where the RNA polymerase would attach in order to activate the inserted gene. However the above method does not require this or the restriction enzymes, making it safer then the original method.

A clear, molecular view of how human color vision evolved

Ricky Wang

Author: Emory University

Published: December 18th, 2014

Link: http://phys.org/news/2014-12-fine-tuning-human-perception.html

Human color vision have changed a lot due to genetic mutations in our ancestors over the last couple millions of years. Scientists have traced back 90 million years of vision evolution that led to our current human vision and discovered that five classes of opsin genes codes for visual pigments for dim-light and color vision. These opsin genes changes depending on the environment and vision adapts as well. 30 million years ago, human ancestors evolved four classes of opsin genes, giving them the ability to see the full color spectrum of visible light except for UV. There are 5040 combinations of amino acid changes to create the genetic changes. Each possibility was tested, and it is found out that the evolutionary pathway is only completed when several genetic changes combine in a particular order. Human vision evolution took a long time, probably because the human environment has changed very slowly.

This article connects primarily to our evolution unit. First, we learned about adaptation and natural selection in chapter 14. Human vision, along with our ancestors’ vision is a trait and has followed natural selection and has adapted over millions of years to the changes of the environment. The best suited individuals for the environment are more fit. For example, our ancestors that were able to see more colors clearly were probably more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass along those genes to their offspring. On the contrary, our ancestors that had a dim and shadowy view of the world would probably have been less fit and less likely to survive. Additionally, this also connects to our unit on genetics specifically about how different combinations of amino acids can result in a variety of outcomes. These differentiations in amino acids make up the genetic changes that accounts for the visual pigments and ultimately, the evolution of human vision.

Ability of HIV to Cause AIDS is Slowing

Leah Brandstein
Source: Oxford University
Published: December 2, 2014

Link:http://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2014-12-02-ability-hiv-cause-aids-slowing

Summary: This article details an Oxford University study on effects of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and presence of the gene HLA-B*57 on HIV. HIV rapidly evolves, thus developing resistance to human’s natural immunity, but this resistance slows HIVs ability to cause AIDS. Research on this topic was done with over two thousand women with chronic HIV in Botswana and South Africa.  There is a protein in human blood called human leukocyte antigen (HLA) that allows the body to differentiate between proteins of the human body and proteins of pathogens. Specifically, there is a gene called HLA-B*57, a kind of HLA protein, which helps protect against HIV, slowing the progress of AIDS. Where HIV has adapted to HLA-B*57, the gene is no longer beneficial. However, this adaptation significantly lowers the virus’s virulence and ability to replicate. Regarding the effects of ART on HIV virulence, the research suggests that when ART is given to combat more virulent HIV, the HIV evolves but is weakened in its ability to replicate. In conclusion, 'HIV adaptation to the most effective immune responses we can make against it comes at a significant cost to its ability to replicate,' -lead scientist Professor Phillip Goulder, University of Oxford.

Connection: This article relates to what we have been learning in biology in several ways. We are currently learning about evolution and adaptations in chapter fourteen. Here the HIV had to adapt to survive in various environments. The HIV which was best suited to the environment would survive and replicate. Although in adapting the HIVs ability to replicate was lowered, this adaptation was necessary to best survive under these conditions. Then, in chapter eleven, we learned about viruses. “A virus is a package of nucleic acid wrapped in a protein coat,” and viruses can only reproduce by infecting living cells with their genetic material. HIV or human immunodeficiency virus is a kind of virus which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Lastly, this article talks about the HLA-B*57 gene, which helps slow the progression of AIDS. However, not all people infected with HIV have this gene. This connects to what we learned in chapter ten, about inheritance following rules of chance and about genetic diversity existing within a species; thus, not everyone has the exact same form of the HLA protein present. 

Neaderthals and Humans First Mated 50,000 Years Ago, DNA Reveals

Neanderthals and Humans First Mated 50,000 Years Ago, DNA Reveals

Grace George

Source: Live Science

Author: Charles Q. Choi

Date Published: October 22nd, 2014

Link: http://www.livescience.com/48399-when-neanderthals-humans-first-interbred.html  

 

 

Summary: Using the shaft of a 45,000 year old thighbone discovered on a river bank in Siberia, scientists attempted to determine when Neanderthals started interbreeding with humans. It has already been theorized that humans developed Asia first by traveling a more southern, coastal route and then heading more north which gave rise to mainland Asians. They tested the bone and deemed it about 45,000 years old so they claim that it "indicates that early modern human migrations into Eurasia were not solely via a southern route as has been previously suggested," Kelso said. After reviewing the genetic analysis of DNA from the bone, it revealed that the man was closely related to present day Asians and to early Europeans. It also showed that he carried a lot of ancestral DNA of Neanderthals, so using this information, the scientists determined that interbreeding and populating of Asia began between 50,000 and 60,000. Scientists have continued examining the DNA to see how the human began to evolve once it started interbreeding and incorporating the new genes into offspring as well as the changing environments as humans explored further north and south.

 

Connection: In the past unit we discussed genomes which tied into chapter 14 discussing the gene pool, genetic drift, and overall- evolution. This was a large step towards the evolution of humans as we started to adventure further out into Earth and the different biomes located on it.  The interbreeding also introduced a new set of genes and alleles into the human genome which then affected the offspring of generations and generations, not only with their genes, but also with how they adapted to environments, differently then humans that did not descend from Neanderthals. As we learned in 15.1, there are certain barriers that prevent interbreeding which tells us that humans and Neanderthals must have been closely related enough to be able to overcome those barriers and breed. Back, 50,000 years ago, had Neanderthals and humans not bred, modern day humans would definitely look different as evolution from new genes and environments has affected the way we have adapted over time.

 





 

 





 

Modern Human Bone Density Drop

Craig Engert
Author: Charlie Choi
Published:December 29, 2014
Link: http://news.discovery.com/human/evolution/modern-human-bone-density-drop-tied-to-lifestyle-shift-141229.htm

Summary: Bone is one of the strongest materials found in nature. Bone in the same quantities is actually stronger than steel. Human bone however is getting weaker and weaker. Scientists believe the change in density of the human bone may provide insight to bone conditions such as osteoporosis. Despite a vast amount of research on the human skeleton, this is the first study, thanks to the help of imaging technology, to prove that modern humans have substantial lower bone density then their ancestors. Currently scientist have found that modern human bone is about one half as dense as modern primates and our early ancestors. The significance of human bone density decreasing is that the human bone density shift was not gradual as one might expcet, rather bone density has decreased rapidly since the Holocene Epoch which began about 12,000 years ago. The change in bone density is more notable in lower joints of the knee, hip, and ankle rather than the shoulder, elbow, and hand. Denoting to the idea that most likely the lack of bone density is due to lack in activity due to technology. However, the bone density change may also had been impacted by a deficiencies in dietary calcium.

Connection: An adaptation is a change in an organism to be better suited for the environment. Thus, the article relates to Unit 7 The Evolution of Life. In this unit we have learned about adaptations. Surprisingly enough lower bone density is an adaptation in the human species. Unlike our primitive ancestors modern humans now have access to technology. With an increase in technology humans no longer need the bone density which was required by their ancestors. With technology humans can and could use less energy to do an activity. With farming and other technology ancient and current less amount of energy must be exerted in humans main task of finding food. Thus, high human bone density is not essential for humans as it had been for their ancestors so humans as a species adapted to their environment filled with technology and loss bone density as it is not essential to the human species to survive, and the resources can be used in another way.

Making Evolution Make Microbes Make Products

Jeffrey Huang
Author: Cynthia Graber
Published: January 8th, 2015.
URL: http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/making-evolution-make-microbes-make-products/

Summary:
In the status quo, scientists have developed specific procedures for inserting certain genes into a bacterial plasmid to turn it a recombinant DNA plasmid so that the bacteria will be able to express the gene that was inserted. Once the bacteria undergoes mitosis, the plasmid ends up getting copied and so the end result is an entire collection of bacteria.This process has its advantages and disadvantages, a major one being that medicine, such as insulin, can be mass produced with the genetically modified foods. By using method, it both requires a cleaner setup and the produces fewer byproducts that harm the environment. Yet this method has been limited due to inefficiencies. To solve this problem, a research team from Harvard's Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering claim to have developed a way to increase efficiency in microbes by using Darwinian principles of evolution. The way did this was by using natural selection to select the bacteria that were most efficient. They did this by altering the bacteria so that they were only antibiotic resistant after producing the desired product. By doing this, only those that make the product will survive because those that don't make the product won't be able to survive in the antibiotic.

Connection:
This podcast connects to the material taught in class in 2 different ways; one is through bioengineering and genetics, and the other is through evolution. In the podcast, the author talks about genetically engineered bacteria and their biomedical contribution as ways to mass produce products that are of interest to humans, such as insulin. As we have learned in class, scientists insert specific genes into bacteria in order for them to make the product desired by the producer. Also, the Cynthia Graber also talks about how the research group used Darwinian principles to strongly improve the efficiency of the production of the bacteria. One specific principle they used was Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection. Darwin's theory of natural selection states that those that have the traits that are better suited to the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. The scientists used this theory in order to "naturally select"  the bacteria that are more efficient, and thus the experiment is a demonstration of Darwin's theory of natural selection.

European Olive Disease

Ben Dempsey
Link: http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-30737754
Source: BBC
Published: January 9, 2015

Summary: Throughout Southern Italy, a bacterium is spreading. The bacterium, Xylella fastidiosa kills Olive, Oak, Sycamore, Grapevine, and citrus trees. There have been outbreaks of Xylella fastidiosa in North America, and South America before, but never in Europe.  It is transmitted through the sap of the trees and is often spread by insects who feed on the sap of the trees. Once infected, the bacteria slowly kills the tree after an incubation period which the tree is still The greatest threat that the bacteria poses is to Southern Europe's olive crop. The Olives are one of Italy's major exports so if the crop fails, it would be very detrimental to the economy. One of the reasons the bacterium has spread so quickly through Italy is because olives are grown in huge monocultures all across Southern Europe. Drastic measures will have ti be put in place regarding movement of plant material to slow the outbreak. 

Connection: This article is relevant to what we have been learning in class because it is a perfect example of the dangers on monocultures. It shows why we should be growing many different kinds of crops instead of one. This would prevent pests spreading and reduce pesticide use. Another way this is relevant to what we have learned is it talks about how invasive species can kill large amounts of native plants due to their lack of defenses and protection.  Xylella fastidiosa is native to North America where the plants have developed resistance to the bacteria. In Europe, the plants are defenseless and killed easily. Some of the Olive trees might have mutations that prevent them from being killed by the bacteria. This would be an example of adaption on the Olive's part. The plants without the mutation would die and this would be an example of Natural Selection. 

Scientists uncover molecular map of autism-related genes

Author: Honor Whiteman
Published: December 30, 2014
Link: Scientists uncover molecular map of autism-related genes - Medical News Today

Summary: 1 in 68 children are estimated to be affected with autism in the United States. Studies have shown at least a significant partial link between genetics and autism risks. But there are many different potential mutations, which makes the disease hard to study. Researchers need to find out how much shared molecular pathways are perturbed by the diverse set of mutations linked to autism A team at the the Stanford Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine at Stanford School of Medicine in California created an "interactome," displaying all molecular interactions in the brain cells they examined. They identified a specific module, or unit of activity, with 119 proteins with a "very strong enrichment for autism genes."  That told them the protein interaction module is involved in autism. Then, using the methods of DNA sequencing, RNA sequencing, antibody staining and functional genomic evidence, the team also found that a brain region called the corpus callosum and certain brain cells called oligodendrocytes influence autism. The molecule they found had two distinct components, one which was a compound that was expressed throughout different regions of the brain, and the other that was expressed specifically in the corpus callosum. Based on this, the researchers think interference in parts of the corpus callosum disrupts the signaling between the two halves of the brain, which likely causes the features characteristic of autism. The lead study author Michael Snyder had this to say about the team's findings: "Our study highlights the importance of building integrative models to study complex human diseases. The use of biological networks allowed us to superimpose clinical mutations for autism onto specific disease-related pathways. This helps finding the needles in the haystack worthy of further investigation and provides a framework to uncover functional models for other diseases." It seems these findings will help make research of genetic diseases easier in general.

Connection: This article is relevant to our molecular genetics unit. We discussed the way in which genes impact the body: through the creation of proteins. This research identifies a model of specific proteins linked to specific genes that, together, influence the risk of autism as one complex, polygenic trait. It shows how, as we discussed, it is possible for more than one gene to influence a trait or connected set of traits, and how groups of molecules work together to achieve a particular outcome. The methods of viewing DNA and RNA relate to and expand upon the methods we used to view specific genes: PCR and gel electrophoresis. Antibody staining is reminiscent of the staining and destaining processes we performed with the gels. Since they have been identifying specific genes, this also connects to our heredity unit, as the genes here would naturally be hereditary.

Russia Officially Bans GMOs

Karthik Kuchimanchi
Link: http://www.inquisitr.com/1692271/monsanto-eliminated-russia-officially-bans-gmos/
Source: Inquisitr
Published: December 20 2014


Summary:     
The Russia government has officially banned GMOs from its country . This is especially bad news for the company Monsanto, one of the leaders in genetically engineering organisms. Most of Russia's GMOs, are imported from Monsanto.Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev stated that Russia doesn't need to grow or import GMOs into their country like America. He said that Russia has enough space to produce organic food. Russia joins countries including Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Luxembourg, Switzerland, and New Zealand, in the banning of GMOs. Along as banning them, Russia has opened an investigation on genetically modified foods and their influence on the human and animal health. Irina Ermashova, the vice president of Russia’s National Association of Genetic Safety, stated that studying GMOs and its effects will help Russia understand the dangers of genetically modified foods. Irina believes that bio-technologies should be developed, but not in the form of GMOs. He believes that the consumption of GMOs can lead to "tumors, cancers and obesity among animals."


Connection:
 This article relates to our last unit, which talked about GMOs. In class, we had a debate on the benefits and drawbacks of genetically modified crops.Our class did not come to a full conclusion on whether the benefits of GMOs outweighed the drawbacks of them, and whether genetically modified crops should be grown across the globe or not. Clearly the Russian government came to a conclusion and saw that they were more drawbacks then benefits, and that is why they decided to ban GMOs. Genetically modified crops can be usually produced quicker than organic crops, but at the cost of being chemically treated and modified. By banning genetically modified crops and imports, Russia will have to develop a strong organic agriculture to make up for the loss of the mass producing genetically modified crops. We also learned in class, that GMOs have many health risks for humans and animals. Russia recognized its risks, and Irina Ermakova said that GMOs can cause complications such as cancer in animals.



       

Evolution of Color in Plants and Animals

Anna Wu
Source: Science Daily
Author: Monash University
Date: January 9, 2015
Link to article

Summary:  In many wild and domestic animal species, several physical differences including color variations can be observed.  Thus the prominent question of why certain colors don't replace others through the evolutionary process of natural selection.  Will Sowersby, a PhD student at Monash University and his research group agrees upon the fact that although color morphs signify biological variation, the adaptive significance and the evolutionary processes that maintain them still remains unknown.  To find an answer, the Monash research group looked at the red devil cichlid, a Central American freshwater fish which is found in two colors: gold and grey.  The grey fish can alter its body color and camouflage into its specific environment, and is also more commonly found than the gold fish. To test if this camouflage ability is linked to color variation, researchers filmed the two colors of the red devil cichlid over light and dark surfaces.  Screenshots were taken and analyzed to measure the amount of change in the fishs' body color.  The researches discovered that only the grey fish have the ability to change color, and the gold fish cannot.  From these results it was concluded that the ability to camouflage could be a potential factor in maintaining color frequencies within species.

Connection: This article pertains to Unit 1 and our current unit, Unit 7.  The dark grey fish are at an advantage because of their camouflage ability, which connects to ecology and the relations between an organism and its environment.  Because they are able to camouflage, it is a possibility that there is a increased chance in survival and decreased chance in getting consumed compared to the brighter gold fish.  This is when natural selection, which we have studied in Unit 7, comes into play.  It is given to us in this species of red devil cichlid, there are more grey fish found in the wild than gold fish.  This could possibly be because not as many grey fish are being consumed as they are not as easily spotted.  If this trend continues, it is possible that one day there will only be grey-colored fish in the red devil cichlid species because it contains the desirable traits for its enviornment.  In other words, the natural selection will lead to adaptation, which will therefore lead to the evolution of an entire species.

Did dogs truly evolve from gray wolves?

It has long been thought in the world of science that dogs evolved from the gray wolves that we see in existence today, however, new contradictory evidence is changing the minds of many scientists from around the world. A study in a recent issue of PLOS genetics, suggests that instead of dogs having evolved from the wolves we know today, they instead evolved from a wolf lineage that went extinct long ago. A team of national researchers examined the genomic sequences of three gray wolves. They took one from China, Croatia, and Israel since those are the three locations where dogs are believed to have originated from. The scientists also examined the genomic sequences of a Basenji dog from Africa and a Dingo from Australia because historically speaking they have been isolated from gray wolf populations. Analysis of the genomes of these dogs in comparison to the wolf species showed that the dogs had far more in common with each other than they had with the gray wolf, this suggests that those types of dogs did not evolve specifically from the gray wolf, and thus not ALL dogs and all types evolved from said gray wolf.

This connects well with both our unit of evolution, and our unit of molecular genetics. We also have a good amount to learn from the procedure followed by the team of researchers responsible for the study. The scientists drew conclusions based off of the lack of similarity in genetic code. It is well known that the more similar a species genetic code is to the genetic code of a different species the more closely related the species are to one another. For example, analysis of the human genome and the genome of gorillas has found that the species are rather closely related.If the genomes of totally unrelated dogs are more similar than the genomes of the animals that dogs supposedly evolved from. Genetic engineering as well as evolution are important concepts in understanding where we came from and how we came to be as we are today.

http://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2014/0117/Did-dogs-really-evolve-from-wolves-New-evidence-suggests-otherwise

Author: Sudeshna Chowdhury
Date of Publishing: January 7 2014
Name: Jordan Blocher

GMOs: Pros and Cons

Tejash Sikka

Author: Treacy Colbert

Published: September 15, 2014

Link: http://www.healthline.com/health/gmos-pros-and-cons#1

Summary: If you have eaten anything today, you have most likely consumed genetically modified foods. GMO seeds are used to plant over 90 percent of corn, soybeans, and cotton produced in the U.S. today. Seeds are genetically engineered for several reasons. They are genetically engineered to increase  seed resistance to insects or to grow better crops. Another reason of why they are engineered is to give foods stronger colors, longer shelf life, or to eliminate seeds, so that consumers can buy seedless watermelons and grapes. Some GMO foods have higher levels of nutrients, such as protein, calcium, and folate, which can make the foods that humans eat more beneficial towards their health. People can also mass-produce GMO crops, which can help third-world countries have more food for their citizens to eat. Since GMO foods have longer shelf life, they can reach to remote areas also. People that are concerned about the safety of GMO crops do not need to worry. They are required to meet the same safety requirements as foods made with non-GMO plants. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), antibiotic-resistant germs infect about two million people each year. These infections claim at least 23,000 peoples' lives each year. Since antibiotic-resistant genes are put into GMO corn and soy crops, there are questions of whether there could be a link between GMO crops and the deaths of those people. No studies so far confirm this claim to be valid.

Connection: This article relates to our molecular genetics unit. One topic that we discussed in this unit, was about genetically modified foods, and the pros and cons of them.  This article gives us several pros and cons about GMO foods. In class, we also had a debate on genetically modified foods. One side argued for the benefits of these foods, and the other side argued about the negatives. Mr. Mathieu also made genetically modified bread made from yeasts, and asked us if we would eat it or not. Most of us said yes, and only a small amount of people said that they would not eat it. This article also relates to a section in our textbooks called “The GMO Controversy.” This section stated that GM crops might have unknown risks  to human consumers and that GM products should be labeled so that people know when they are consuming a genetically modified product. The article above states similar points and ideas to the textbook.

  

How to Avoid Stealth GMOs

How to Avoid Stealth GMOs

Nilay Maity

1/11/15
Published: 2/13/14

Link: http://www.doctoroz.com/episode/no-gmos-global-conspiracy-keep-you-knowing-truth-about-your-food


Summary: In this video by Dr. Oz he discussed the controversy over GMO labeling. Many farmers have genetically modified there crops so that their crops are pesticide resistant. Basically what this allow farmers to do is to use more pesticides so that there crops will not be affected by bugs and other pest since these bugs can become quickly resistant to different types of pesticides through natural selection.
Since there are many pesticides being used to grow crops, human population is eating food that has been sprayed with lots of pesticides. Pesticides can cause many issues to humans including in brain and hormonal problems. Many americans want to know whether they are eating GMO's or not, but the food industry is spending millions of dollars so they don't have to label their foods, even though 93% of americans want GMO foods labeled. Food companies also claim that labeling GMO's will cost an american family of four over 1600 dollars more yearly for food. But guest Scott Faber on the show disputed this claim basically saying that 5 words on the back of a food box won't make a huge difference in the cost of food. Dr. Oz also gave some ways to identify what is GMO and what is not. Some companies like General Mills voluntarily label their foods and strive not to use GMO's. He also said that food with corn and soy derivedids will most likely have GMO's in them. In conclusion Dr. Oz is strongly in favor of GMO labeling in America and guest Scott Faber said that two-thirds of the world's countries have GMO labeling, why not us.



Connection: Just a couple of weeks ago our class did a debate on GMO's. We gathered a lot of the information that was given in the video by Dr. Oz. The one thing I do not believe we really discussed in strong detail was the labeling of GMO's in stores. Most americans don't have a lot of knowledge about GMO's and I believe it was a good thing that we studied GMO foods. After looking at multiple sources and gathering information, we debated about whether GMO foods were helpful or harmful. After the debate was over, most of our class was in favor of GMO foods. However this was not the case in the video. In the clip Dr. Oz took a verbal survey and most of the crowd didn't want to be eating GMO's. Personally I believe that most of the crowd didn't know a lot about GMO's and Dr. Oz used a very negative connotation about GMO's. He also didn't talk about the pros of GMO's and how they can help solve world hunger. The research I did in class and the lab report has me convinced that GMO's are good for the world, but I do believe that they should be labeled in food stores. The astounding fact for me was two-thirds of the worlds countries have labeled GMO's, so why hasn't one of the most progressive countries in the world done it.

Innovative approach to treating pancreatic cancer combines chemotherapy and immuno-therapy

Amrita Krishnakumar
Source: Virginia Commonwealth University
Author: Liza Bishop
Published: November 12, 2014
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/11/141112102646.htm


Summary: 
Over the years many scientists, doctors and researchers have been looking for cures and solutions to fighting cancer. As we know, many types of cancer can be treated and many people have been helped. However, one type of cancer that has a survival rate less than six percent is, pancreatic cancer. It is said to be one of the deadliest of cancers. "Pancreatic cancer is currently the fourth leading cause of cancer death in the US. Developing an effective treatment is a vital step, and immuno-chemotherapy may be the key," said Luni Emdad, member of the Cancer Molecular Genetics research program at VCU Massey, assistant professor in the Department of Human and Molecular Genetics at VCU School of Medicine and member of the VIMM. The reason for the high mortality rate caused by the cancer is the failure to diagnose the disease before spreading to other parts of the body. Chemotherapy and radiation are not strong enough to fight such an aggressive disease, so scientists at VCU Massey Cancer center and VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine have discovered a new way to treat pancreatic cancer using immuno-chemotherapy. Immuno-chemotherapy is a combination of chemotherapy and immunotherapy, which uses the patient's own immune system to help fight the disease. Many scientists including Paul B. Fisher, M.Ph., Ph.D., and Luni Emdad, M.B.B.S., Ph.D., have found that a combination of a molecule polyethlenimine (PEI) and polyinosine-polycytidylic acid (pIC), can help kill cancerous pancreatic cells and leave alone all the normal cells.


Connections:
This article and topic relates to our Molecular Biology unit and our Cells unit. In our discussions and in chapter 12.4 of the textbook, we talked about cells and how mutations in cells can cause the cells to become cancerous. The cancerous cells that are found in pancreatic cancer can be acquired or inherited. Those who have pancreatic cancer, could have cancerous cells replicating in their bodies since it runs in their families. Also, those who acquire the cells could have been exposed to carcinogens, like cigarette smoke. People of Ashkenazi Jewish descent or have the BRCA2, p16, STK11 gene mutation or chronic pancreatitis have a greater risk of developing/producing cancerous cells as well. The problem that most doctors have with identifying pancreatic cancer is that, the symptoms are not defined and could be symptoms of other diseases as well. It has been calculated that ten percent of pancreatic cancers are hereditary. Mainly these mutations can be inherited from a parent. Most individuals that inherit the cancer, inherit one mutant copy from the parent. As time passes, those with the inherited cancer syndrome, will end up damaging the good copy of the gene and as a result the pancreas will grow abnormally. Another scenario involves the DNA being damaged by chance. There is a small percentile chance that when copying the DNA, there are mistakes made and a gene that involve cancer cells are mutated. These two reasons are the main reasons as to why people could have pancreatic cancer.

Devil is in the Detail: Evolution of Color in Plants and Animals

Shay Lukas
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/01/150109093727.htm
Author/Source: Monash University
Date: January 9, 2015


Summary:
This article pertains to observations of the Central American Freshwater fish. This species of fish has color variants, meaning some of the fish are one color and some are a different color. This puzzled researchers because according to the idea of natural selection, one color should be the acquired trait and become the norm of the population. Will Sowersby, the head researcher, had his team observe a specific type of fish: the red devil cichlid. They come two different colors; dark gray and gold. Sowersby and his team observed that the dark colored fish is more common throughout the species. They then discovered that this fish could change their coloring to better match their environment, making it the desired trait. Therefore the gold colored fish is more rare, even though it is genetically dominant. To test this further, the researchers filmed the fish over light and dark surfaces. They measured the change in the fish's body color. They discovered that the dark colored fish could actually alter its brightness to fit the specific background, while the gold fish was unable to do so. This suggests that how well the fish can blend in with its background impacts the evolution of the coloration of its species.


Connection: This article connects to what we have been learning about evolution in class. It discusses natural selection and acquired traits, which are two key terms in our studies. The darker colored fish possesses the acquired trait, and is more likely to survive then the gold colored fish. In the past, there were more gold colored fish because it is the dominant trait. Yet over time, natural selection has taken place, allowing only the strongest to survive. This made the gold fish much more rare, because it cannot  hid itself as easily from predators. This relates to the idea of fitness, which is the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation. This relies on an organism's ability to survive and produce fertile offspring. More dark colored fish are surviving and mating, while a lot of gold fish die before they reach that point. That makes the dark fish more fit then the gold fish, causing it to survive natural selection. Natural selection is still occurring in this species, and soon it will evolve into an entirely dark colored fish species. The different coloring of these fish also relates to the concept of biodiversity and genetic variation within a species.

Endangered Cuban Crocodiles Are Losing Their Genetic Identity

Allison Pearson

Source: Scientific American

Author: Allie Wilkinson

Date Published: December 3rd, 2014

Link: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/endangered-cuban-crocodiles-are-losing-their-genetic-identity/

Summary

The Cuban Crocodile, one of the world’s most endangered crocodiles, is slowly losing its genetic identity. It has been interbreeding with its cousin, the American crocodile, and thus has created many hybrid offspring that are now beginning to populate the island of Cuba. With each generation of hybrids, more of the Cuban Crocodile genes are replaced by American crocodile genes and lost, and the species could eventually go extinct because of this. When the island crocodiles were sampled, about 50% of them were hybrids, a much higher number than previously recorded. This brings up a new question: if the Cuban Crocodiles and the American Crocodiles can interbreed and produce fertile offspring, are they still considered separate species? According to the biological species concept, no… however, even though by biological definition the breeding is “natural”, biologists are still approaching the situation as if they were two separate species, and are doing whatever they can to stop the interbreeding between them so that the Cuban Crocodile can keep its identity.

Connection

This article relates to our current unit in Biology, evolution. This unit discusses the definition of a species and how new ones are created. In Chapter 15.1, the biological species concept is explained, and in the article it is brought up in order to determine whether or not the two crocodiles are still considered separate species. If we follow the biological species concept and treat the Cuban Crocodile and the American Crocodile as the same species but two separate populations, this interbreeding is an example of gene flow (14.4), which is the exchange of genes between two populations. If the gene flow continues, it could reunite these two populations back into a single one, which is probably what they were originally. Overall, the interbreeding of these two populations of crocodiles is an example of evolution because it is causing fewer genetic differences between the populations and causing their traits to change.

Hemophilia Cured in Mice Models Using New Genome Editing Method

Neha Kamireddi
Source: Health Care Professionals Network
Author: Rachel Lutz
Published: January 5, 2015
Link: http://www.hcplive.com/publications/hemophilia-reports/2014/december2014/Hemophilia-Cured-in-Mice-Models-Using-New-Genome-Editing-Method-

Researchers from Stanford University School of Medicine have been able to cure hemophilia in mice using a new gene editing method. This method is believed to be safer and longer lasting than the current method of gene editing. By inserting a clotting factor gene into the liver cells of the hemophilic mice, the cells were able to produce the clotting factor, curing the mice. This new method does not require nucleases to cut up the DNA, or promoters to activate the inserted gene making it safer than the previous method. The use of nucleases and promoters can cause significant adverse effects so by not using these to insert the clotting factor gene, the mice are safe from new genes inserting themselves randomly in the genome which could lead to cancer. The treatment worked well for both newborn and adult mice. If this method proves to be safe and effective, future studies could lead to a cure for hemophiliacs.

This study connects to our unit on Heredity and our unit on Molecular Genetics. In our unit on Heredity, we learned about hemophilia in the context of recessive alleles. Hemophilia is a disorder caused by deficiency in certain clotting factors. Without these factors, the blood will not be able to clot, causing a minor wound to bleed much longer than a non-hemophiliac. Hemophilia is a recessive sex-linked, X chromosome disorder, meaning that it is passed on through gametes in the X chromosome. For this reason, hemophilia is more likely to appear in men because they only have one X chromosome, so they only need to receive one allele in order to manifest the disorder. This study inserted the clotting factor gene without the need for nucleases and promoters. In our unit on Molecular Genetics, we learned about restriction enzymes (nucleases) and how certain genes are turned on and off. In genetic modification, restriction enzymes are used to cut sections of DNA so that a new section can be inserted. The method mentioned in the article did not require this and instead attaches the new gene to albumin already found in the liver. This was also able to take the place of promoters which would have activated the new gene that was inserted. We learned about promoters in the context of the lac operon gene. The promoter would be where the RNA polymerase would attach in order to activate the inserted gene. By attaching the new clotting factor gene to albumin, there is no need for a promoter to activate the gene. Since this method does not require promoters or nucleases, it is made much safer, and has proven more effective.

Scientists Discover Potentially Powerful Antibiotic

Emily Jeong
Author: Liz Szabo
Published: January 8, 2015
Link: http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/01/08/new-antibiotic-in-soil/21440317/

Summary: 
Antibiotics have been used for decades to fight harmful bacteria, but over the many years, the antibiotic-resistance of bacteria has become more common. These strains of bacteria resistant to antibiotics are called superbugs. The rate at which superbugs are appearing are much faster than what the scientists can catch up to. The development of new antibiotics are very difficult (because of financial and scientific reasons), which might lead to what the article calls a "post-antibiotic" era, an era in which former antibiotics won't be effective against any bacteria, resulting in death from formerly treatable infections. However, which the new technology of the iChip, a device that sorts individual bacterial cells within the soil, the scientists were able to finally start studying and testing the bacteria in the soil. Prior to the iChip, they attempted to grow the bacteria in lab dishes, which resulted in a failure. With the iChip, the bacteria were kept in the soil, an environment with which they were familiar. In the iChip, they formed colonies and then were transferred into lab dishes, where they grew very well. After much testing and research, they discovered teixobactin, a compound produced in soil bacteria, was very aggressive against MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) in mice. The introduction of teixobactin as an antibiotic seems promising as scientists did not detect a resistance from the bacteria against it. As exciting as this new finding is, researcher Kim Lewis warns that "human trials are still two years away... Completing those human trials will take three years... Most drugs that appear promising in animals fail to pass human tests." Furthermore, even if teixobactin is effective and safe for human use, it won't be on the market for at least five years. 

Connection:
Just recently, we wrote outlines on antibiotics and the resistance to antibiotics that can develop over time within bacteria. This article relates to our current unit of evolution because the superbugs can form through natural selection. In the article, the 70 year use of a compound found in bread mold as an antibiotic is briefly mentioned. The bacteria would adapt to the antibiotic through the condition of the environment. In the presence of an antibiotic, the bacteria that is best fit would survive, and the gene combination that is resistant to antibiotics would be passed down to offspring, increasing the frequency of the antibiotic resistant allele. Teixobactin was only discovered because of the need of a new antibiotic that could kill superbugs that are resistant to the previous antibiotic. Although teixobactin hasn't been tested in humans yet, there is a certain idea that bacteria won't be becoming resistant to it anytime soon.  

Hereditary trauma: Inheritance of Traumas and How They May Be Mediated

Tiffany Chan

Source- ETH Zurich

Date Published- April 13, 2014

Link- http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140413135953.htm

Summary- 

Recently, researchers have discovered that trauma can be hereditary. If one goes through trauma at a young age, they can pass down certain behaviors to their offspring. This is caused by a molecule called microRNA. It is made using DNA as a template. Cells inherently have short RNAs which are called microRNA. MicroRNA have functions like controlling how much of a certain protein are made. A strip of microRNA contains 22 nucleotides and is complementary to a strip of mRNA. MicroRNA binds to the mRNA which prevents the making of proteins by suppressing protein synthesis. With adult mice, researchers have studied the effects of trauma on microRNA, like how much and what kind is being produced when one is traumatized. It was discovered that stress from trauma causes the microRNA to change in amount in the blood, the brain, and in gametes. The irregular amount causes differences in cellular processes which are controlled by microRNA. With the mice, after the traumatic experience, it was seen that the mouse’s behavior changed. It was also observed that these behaviors were seen in the offspring of the traumatized mice even though the offspring had not had any traumatic experiences. In addition, the metabolism of the mice were changed. The offspring of the traumatized mice had less insulin and lower blood-sugar levels than the offspring of the non-traumatized mice. The abnormal behavior and different metabolism continued to show in the third generation of mice. Currently, researchers are studying how short RNA affect trauma inheritance in humans. 

Connection- This article relates to molecular genetics as well as heredity. The result of the trauma is hereditary seeing that it affects the gametes of the traumatized mice. Therefore, the abnormal behaviors and metabolism affected by the microRNA in the parent generation are passed down to the F1 generation as well as the F2 generation. As learned in the molecular genetics unit, if something is changed in the gamete of an organism, then the offspring will inherit whatever has been changed. The change of the amount of the microRNA shows in the phenotype of the organism, seeing that their behavior changes. MicroRNA is made the same way mRNA is made which is by using the DNA as a template. Also, as learned in the molecular genetics unit, the RNA affects the proteins that are being made. MicroRNA regulates the amount of a certain protein that is being produced.

Evolution Of Snakes

Hissstory re-written: Snakes didn't lose their necks as they evolved from their ancestors - mammals and birds just GAINED them

Author: Sarah Griffiths

Publication Date: 8 January 2015
Link: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2900626/Hissstory-written-Snakes-didn-t-lose-necks-evolved-form-ancestors-mammals-birds-just-GAINED-them.html

Summary: 

        Scientists have long thought that snakes evolved their legless bodies by losing regions of their body, like their neck, legs as they evolve from their four legged lizard ancestors. Recent new studies show that snakes did not lose distinct regions, rather mammals and birds gained them. Hox gene, which establishes boundaries in body parts such as neck and lumber in mammals and birds was thought to be disrupted in snakes, this theory was proven to be wrong. Researchers found out that Hox gene is present and completely function-able in snakes, and after studying the skeleton structure of snakes, scientists came to the realization that snakes skeleton structures are just as diverse as lizard's skeleton structure, and simply losing a gene does not explain the diversity in snakes. If snakes evolved from losing the Hox gene, one would expect less regions like shoulders, necks to be found in snakes, but the result is the complete opposite, the exact same regions are found in same places as limped lizards. This new study combined with fossil records, scientists are able to came to the conclusion that snakes did not evolve from lizards, mammals and birds gained the new body parts independently rather than the other way around.

        This relates to what we learned recently because this article is about evolution of snakes. We learned that species adapt to better survive in their ever changing environment. People thought that snakes were evolved from lizards, but now that we now it's the other way around, lizards evolved from snakes possible due to the advantage of conserving energy while moving on land, and sometimes move faster. The lizards were able to pass down their genes because this mutation in their genes helped them survive, and this process is what Darwin described as natural selection.  

Genes show the way to better treatment of hepatitis C

Meera Singh

Author: -
Published: December 23, 2014
Link: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/287464.php

Summary: Hepatitis C is a virus which damages the liver and can lead to liver cancer. Treatments exist, but with varying degrees of success; some people are very responsive and others only a little, while still others are not responsive at all. Investigating this, scientists at the university of Aarhus in Denmark have recently discovered a gene that is involved with patient's success in clearing themselves of the disease. The gene produces a protein called IFNL4. People who produces fully functioning IFNL4 have a lower chance of clearing the virus out, while people with less functioning IFNL4 are more likely to be able to recover. (The majority of people in Denmark fall into this category.) The fact that the protein leads to a reduced ability to clear the virus is surprising, because in the laboratory IFNL4 is antiviral and it is an essential part of the immune system. Scientists are hypothesizing that the protein, although it is part of the immune system, may confuse other parts of the immune system when hepatitis C is present, thereby reducing the body's ability to combat hepatitis C. With this new information, scientists are hopeful that new treatments could be developed that are effective not only in people with fully functioning IFNL4, but also in people with versions of reduced or no IFNL4 activity, who do not usually respond well to treatments. This may involve developing treatments that fit each patient's individual genome. In the meantime, scientists are trying to conduct further research on IFNL4 to better understand the gene and gain more knowledge about how exactly it interferes with hepatitis C clearance.

Connection: This article is relevant to our molecular genetics unit. We talked specifically about how genes impact our bodies: by producing proteins. This article provides a good example of an important protein which can either be beneficial or harmful, depending on whether the person has hepatitis C. In this way, it also resembles the sickle cell disease and malaria case, in which people with one disease actually have a resistance to another. In the case of IFNL4, people with an essential part of the immune system, which would normally be beneficial, suffer from another disease more than they would without that part of the immune system. This demonstrates how genes and proteins can impact our bodies in multiple ways, just like the sickle cell disease and malaria case. Finally, the article also connects to our heredity unit. The fact that most people in Denmark have a certain genotype in regards to this gene suggest that it may be hereditary. There also are people who have versions of the protein that function partially or not at all, indicating alternate forms of the gene, or alleles, just like we studied in our heredity unit.

Ribosomes and Thier Importance to Evolution by Being "Selfish"

Jason Lei

Author/Source: Aarhus University
Published: December 7, 2015
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/01/150107101405.htm

Summary: DNA was originally thought to be "selfish", in that it was thought to be a blueprint to reproduce itself. However, Merideth Root-Bernstein and her father, Robert Root-Bernstein challenged this theory. The researched DNA and its purpose, as well as ran experiments involving ribosomes and DNA in ecoli until the conclusion was reached that DNA does not strive to replicate or translate, rather it wishes to remain tightly curled. This rid of the old hypothesis that DNA only wishes to replicate, and was called "selfish DNA". However, due to this study, it was found that DNA is not selfish, rather ribosomes are. The experiment suggests that ribosomes simply use DNA to make reproductions of themselves, thus cells, DNA, and organisms were evolved mainly as systems to control and contain ribosomal reproduction.

Connection: This article relates the functions of cells, ribosomes, DNA, and RNA which we had learned in the last chapter. The article specifically focuses on ribosomes and DNA, and more specifically, compares the purpose of DNA to ribosomal RNA, and sheds light on why functions such as reproduction and transcription exist. Evolution is also shown as a key factor of the development of ribosomes in cells. Ribosomes attained the ability to control DNA and RNA, as well as create more ribosomes with DNA.This adaptation favored the ribosomes, leading them too become more influential. This connects closely to natural selection and evolution which we have recently studied in the textbook as well as in class. Ribosomes became a key part in evolution because it was an easier way to produce protein amino acid chains.

Forcing chromosomes into loops may switch off sickle cell disease

Rebecca Morse
Author: -
Published: August 14th, 2014
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/08/140814123424.htm

Summary: This article explains how scientists have altered red blood cells, causing them to produce fetal hemoglobin, which is not affected by sickle cell disease (SCD). Hematologists have observed that patients with the disease who have higher levels of fetal hemoglobin than adult hemoglobin experience a more moderate form of SCD. The scientists in this particular article, led by Gerd A. Blobel, forced chromatin to form looped structures that could activate hemoglobin-regulating genes. He and his team had previously adapted zinc fingers that could attach to specific DNA sites which were located far apart on a chromosome. This caused a chromatin loop to form that could convey regulatory signals to certain genes. Another key piece of information the scientists needed for their experiment was that once a child is born, a "biological switch" transitions the blood cells from containing fetal hemoglobin to adult hemoglobin, silencing the genes that produce the former. Knowing that adult hemoglobin in people with SCD leads to misshapen cells that can damage organs and clog up blood vessels, Blobel and his team designed zinc fingers to flip the "biological switch" in cells that produced blood. It reactivated the genes that expressed fetal hemoglobin while simultaneously deactivating the genes that expressed adult hemoglobin. Blobel and his team got their results by using cultured blood cells taken from adult humans and adult mice. He speculates that forcing chromatin looping could also be applied to other disorders pertaining to hemoglobin.

Connection: This article relates to topics we have covered throughout this term in a couple different ways. Firstly, in chapter 11 of our science textbook, we learned about genetics and how a mutation is any change in the nucleotide sequences contained in DNA, ranging from big regions of a chromosome to a single nucleotide pair. In the case of sickle cells, the mutation is caused by one nucleotide in a sequence consisting of 438 bases. The textbook, in both chapters 11 and 14, wrote about how this mutation led to cells forming a sickle-shape that could block tiny blood vessels and in turn, the flow of blood, just as written about in the article above. Additionally in our studies of genetics, we learned how some diseases cannot be inherited, like cancers, while others can, like the SCD. In chapter 13, we studied how genes could be turned on and off. Lactose, for example, could be made when a repressor molecule did not bind to the operator; however, when lactose was not present, the repressor would bind to the operator, halting production. This is somewhat similar to how the scientists used zinc fingers that coil the chromatin to activate the genes that produced fetal hemoglobin and deactivate the genes producing adult hemoglobin. Both mutations in genes causing sickle cell disease and how genes are turned on and off were detailed in our course in this past term, and both of these topics were covered in the article.

“Programmable” antibiotic uses enzyme to attack drug-resistant microbes

Karthik Kuchimanchi
Source: The Rockefeller University
Published: Oct. 5 2014
Link: http://newswire.rockefeller.edu/2014/10/05/programmable-antibiotic-harnesses-an-enzyme-to-attack-drug-resistant-microbes/



Summary: Researchers in Rockefeller University have recently found a  new way to eradicate microbes that cause viruses, especially ones found in the liver. The bacterial enzyme Cas9 is the key here. This enzyme can reduce the risk of C. diff, a severe infection of the colon, caused by the Clostridium difficile bacterium. This is a severe infection that usually sends people to the hospital and puts them on harsh antibiotic treatments. The microbe is well-known for its immunity to most standard type of antibiotics, so this new alternative treatment is revolutionary. This technique of using Cas9 is also beneficial because this way is known for not damaging other innocent microbes that coexist with C. diff. The Cas9 is programmable, meaning that the scientists have a way of controlling what Cas9 does to some degree. The results are astounding,  though this way of treating the microbe still needs development and the scientists will continue to improve their program and treatment


Connection: This article relates to our study of macro molecules, but in particular proteins. More specially, this connects to our topic of enzymes. In class we know that enzymes are proteins that break down certain molecules and are characterized as catalysts. Catalysts speed up a reaction with less activation energy. When we think of enzymes We usually think of saliva, which has the enzyme amylase or  stomach acid, which breaks down food, like pepsin. This article shows that different enzymes can make a bigger impact and even can kill certain microbes that contain harmful bacteria. Furthermore this article teaches us that enzymes serve many purposes then ones we learned in class, which were only some of the examples. Also, this article briefly references the scientific method, which was something we went over in class as well. In this experiment, there were many recorded observations and then a conclusion was made after them. This is key in a successful experiment.  

Plastisphere -The world of plastics and how microbial organisms thrive in the plastisphere.

Sachit Murali
Published: October 22nd, 2014
Source: American Geophysical Union
Links: http://news.agu.org/press-release/uncovering-the-secret-world-of-the-plastisphere/

Summary:
Plastics are useful in many aspects because its durable, cheap and flexible. Plastics have now turned into a plastic communities because of all the plastic polluted the ocean gets filled with plastic every year. Its ability to last long allows it to end up in places it should not be in. Ocean being a good example of where plastic usually ends up. It is known that most organisms are severely affected by plastics but some organisms thrive in plastic debris in the ocean. Algae are a great example of an organism thriving in plastic debris because of their ability to transform plastic into "rich microbial reefs".  An experiment was conducted by marine biologist testing to see how the algae how had the algae transformed the plastic into food and shelter. To see this he went deep into the ocean and found floating invertebrate some microbial biofilm.  Later was found to be made from plastic and see that these microbes thrived from the plastic.


Connection:
This is related to what we talked in class because this shows how plastics can negatively and positively effect our ecosystem. The plastic as we all know can kill off major consumers in our ecosystem. Luckily though our producers are not affected by these plastics and this can really boost many ecosystems. Because the producers can really help many of the consumers. Also since the chain is messed up by the consumers being affected, the producers being well off can help the primary consumers in the food chain. Also many symbiotic relationships occur because of the plastic. The most direct symbiotic relationship is the microbes affecting animals. For example a species called vibrio gives out chorea to the disease to many animals. This is definitely an example of parasitism because the bacteria get a place stay while hurting the bodies of the animals.

Predicting the predator threatening a squirrel by analyzing its sounds and tail movements

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/10/141021125943.htm
Oct. 21, 2014
Author: University of Miami

Biologists discovered that by observing the motion of a squirrel’s tail, it could be concluded what predator it was being threatened by. Thaddeus McRae, Ph.D. '12, assistant research professor of University of Miami College of Arts Sciences, takes a closer look at the certain vocalizations and gestures of the squirrels. McRae conducted his research by designing a remote-controlled cat and hawk which threatened and recorded the responses of the squirrels. Professor Steven Green, a coworker of McRae, found that he could quite accurately predict what type of predator was threatening a squirrel by analyzing its sounds and tail movements. McRae theorizes that the squirrels use the vocal and tail alarm either as a signal to predators in letting them know that they have been spotted, or to warn other squirrels of danger. Currently, he is trying to determine how squirrels react to these warning signals from their peers.

 This article links back to Unit 1 on community ecology. We learned about how species interact in biological communities, with one interaction being predation. Predation is an interaction in which one organism eats another. Many adaptions have evolved in both predator and prey as eating or preventing to becoming eaten was necessary for survival. The prey may have adapted camouflage or mimicry, while predators may have adapted claws or fangs to catch the prey. An example of adaption is shown in McRae and Green’s experiment as they test to see if squirrels create certain movements or sounds to differentiate the predator that is attacking. This is an example of a predator-prey relationship because animals including cats and hawks play the role as predators, while the squirrels are the prey. This article also exemplifies adaption. Due to experience with certain predators, the squirrels are able to send out different messages that will identify the animal.